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  • 1 crown

    1. noun
    1) (a circular, often jewelled, head-dress, especially one worn as a mark of royalty or honour: the queen's crown.) corona
    2) ((with capital) the king or queen or governing power in a monarchy: revenue belonging to the Crown.) corona
    3) (the top eg of a head, hat, hill etc: We reached the crown of the hill.) coronilla (cabeza); cima, cumbre
    4) ((an artificial replacement for) the part of a tooth which can be seen.) corona, funda

    2. verb
    1) (to make (someone) king or queen by placing a crown on his or her head: The archbishop crowned the queen.) coronar
    2) (to form the top part of (something): an iced cake crowned with a cherry.) coronar; rematar
    3) (to put an artificial crown on (a tooth).) poner una corona
    4) (to hit (someone) on the head: If you do that again, I'll crown you!) golpear en la cabeza, dar un coscorrón
    •
    - crown princess
    crown n corona
    tr[kraʊn]
    1 (of king, queen) corona
    2 SMALLANATOMY/SMALL (of head) coronilla; (of tooth) corona
    3 (top - of hat, tree) copa; (- of hill) cima; (- of road) parte nombre femenino central
    4 SMALLBRITISH ENGLISH/SMALL (coin) corona
    1 (monarch) coronar
    2 (form top of, be on the top of) coronar, rematar
    3 (complete, conclude) coronar
    4 (tooth) poner una corona en
    5 familiar (hit on head) dar un golpe en la cabeza a, dar un coscorrón a
    1 la corona
    \
    SMALLIDIOMATIC EXPRESSION/SMALL
    to crown it all y para colmo
    crown court tribunal nombre masculino superior
    crown prince príncipe nombre masculino heredero
    crown princess princesa heredera
    crowned head testa coronada
    crown ['kraʊn] vt
    : coronar
    : corona f
    n.
    • cima s.f.
    • corona s.f.
    • coronamiento s.m.
    • coronilla s.f.
    • diadema s.f.
    v.
    • coronar v.
    • premiar v.
    • rematar v.
    • terminar v.

    I kraʊn
    1)
    a) c ( of monarch) corona f
    b) (Govt, Law)
    2) c ( top - of hill) cima f; (- of tree) copa f; (- of tooth) corona f; (- of head) coronilla f; (- of hat) copa f; (- of road) centro m
    3) c ( Fin) corona f

    II
    1) ( make monarch) coronar
    2)
    a) ( surmount) coronar, rematar
    b) ( be culmination of) coronar

    to crown it all, I lost my wallet — y para rematarla, perdí la billetera

    3) ( Dent) \<\<tooth\>\> poner* una corona en
    4) ( hit) (colloq) darle* un coscorrón a (fam)
    [kraʊn]
    1. N
    1) (=headdress, monarchy) corona f
    2) (Jur)
    3) (Sport) (=championship title) campeonato m, título m
    4) (=top) [of hat] copa f ; [of head] coronilla f ; [of hill] cumbre f, cima f ; [of tooth] corona f
    2. VT
    1) [+ king etc] coronar
    2) (usu pass) (=cap, round off) coronar, rematar

    I wouldn't exactly say our efforts were crowned with success — iro yo no me atrevería a decir que nuestros esfuerzos se vieron coronados por el éxito

    3) [+ tooth] poner una corona en
    4) (Draughts) [+ piece] coronar
    5) * (=hit) golpear en la cabeza

    I'll crown you if you do that again! — ¡como lo vuelves a hacer te rompo la crisma! *

    3.
    CPD

    crown colony N — (Brit) colonia f

    crown court N — (Brit) (Jur) ≈ Audiencia f provincial

    crown jewels NPL — joyas fpl de la corona

    crown lands NPL — propiedad f de la corona

    crown prince N — príncipe m heredero

    crown princess N — princesa f heredera

    Crown Prosecution Service N — (Brit) fiscalía general británica

    crown prosecutor N — (Brit) fiscal general británico

    * * *

    I [kraʊn]
    1)
    a) c ( of monarch) corona f
    b) (Govt, Law)
    2) c ( top - of hill) cima f; (- of tree) copa f; (- of tooth) corona f; (- of head) coronilla f; (- of hat) copa f; (- of road) centro m
    3) c ( Fin) corona f

    II
    1) ( make monarch) coronar
    2)
    a) ( surmount) coronar, rematar
    b) ( be culmination of) coronar

    to crown it all, I lost my wallet — y para rematarla, perdí la billetera

    3) ( Dent) \<\<tooth\>\> poner* una corona en
    4) ( hit) (colloq) darle* un coscorrón a (fam)

    English-spanish dictionary > crown

  • 2 rule

    ru:l
    1. noun
    1) (government: under foreign rule.) gobierno
    2) (a regulation or order: school rules.) regla, norma, reglamento
    3) (what usually happens or is done; a general principle: He is an exception to the rule that fat people are usually happy.) regla
    4) (a general standard that guides one's actions: I make it a rule never to be late for appointments.) norma
    5) (a marked strip of wood, metal etc for measuring: He measured the windows with a rule.) regla

    2. verb
    1) (to govern: The king ruled (the people) wisely.) reinar, gobernar
    2) (to decide officially: The judge ruled that the witness should be heard.) decidir, fallar (jurídico)
    3) (to draw (a straight line): He ruled a line across the page.) trazar (con una regla)
    •
    - ruler
    - ruling
    3. noun
    (an official decision: The judge gave his ruling.) fallo, decisión
    - rule off
    - rule out
    rule1 n
    1. regla / norma
    you can't do that, it's against the rules no puedes hacer eso, va en contra de las reglas / no puedes hacer eso, está prohibido
    2. gobierno / dominio
    rule2 vb gobernar
    tr[rʊːl]
    1 (regulation) regla, norma
    2 (control) dominio
    3 (of monarch) reinado; (by government) gobierno
    4 (measure) regla
    1 (govern) gobernar; (reign) reinar en
    2 (decree) decretar, dictaminar
    3 (draw) trazar
    1 (govern) gobernar; (reign) reinar
    2 (decree) decretar, dictaminar
    \
    SMALLIDIOMATIC EXPRESSION/SMALL
    as a rule por lo general, por regla general
    to work to rule hacer una huelga de celo
    as a rule of thumb como regla general
    rule ['ru:l] v, ruled ; ruling vt
    1) control, govern: gobernar (un país), controlar (las emociones)
    2) decide: decidir, fallar
    the judge ruled that...: el juez falló que...
    3) draw: trazar con una regla
    rule vi
    1) govern: gobernar, reinar
    2) prevail: prevalecer, imperar
    3)
    to rule against : fallar en contra de
    rule n
    1) regulation: regla f, norma f
    2) custom, habit: regla f general
    as a rule: por lo general
    3) government: gobierno m, dominio m
    4) ruler: regla f (para medir)
    n.
    • arreglo s.m.
    • canon s.m.
    • código s.m.
    • dominación s.f.
    • dominio s.m.
    • estatuto s.m.
    • norma s.f.
    • precepto s.m.
    • regla s.f.
    • reglamento s.m.
    • señoría s.f.
    v.
    • decidir v.
    • dirigir v.
    • gobernar v.
    • imperar v.
    • rayar v.
    • regir v.
    • reinar v.
    ruːl
    I
    1) c (regulation, principle) regla f, norma f

    to bend o stretch the rules — apartarse un poco de las reglas

    to work to rule — ( Lab Rel) hacer* huelga de celo, trabajar a reglamento (CS)

    2) (general practice, habit) (no pl)

    as a rule — por lo general, generalmente

    3) u ( government) gobierno m; ( of monarch) reinado m

    to be under foreign rule — estar* bajo dominio extranjero

    the rule of law — el imperio de la ley; majority 1) a)

    4) c ( measure) regla f

    II
    1.
    1) (govern, control) \<\<country\>\> gobernar*, administrar; \<\<person\>\> dominar; \<\<emotion\>\> controlar
    2) ( pronounce) dictaminar
    3) ( draw) \<\<line\>\> trazar* con una regla

    ruled paper — papel m con renglones


    2.
    vi
    1)
    a) ( govern) gobernar*; \<\<monarch\>\> reinar

    to rule OVER somebody — gobernar* a alguien, reinar sobre alguien

    b) (predominate, be current) imperar
    2) ( pronounce)

    to rule (ON something) — fallar or resolver* (en algo)

    to rule against/in favor of somebody/something — fallar or resolver* en contra/a favor de alguien/algo

    •
    Phrasal Verbs:
    [ruːl]
    1. N
    1) (=regulation) regla f, norma f
    rules [of competition] bases fpl

    it's the rules — son las reglas, esa es la norma

    it's a rule that all guests must vacate their rooms by 10a.m. — por norma los clientes tienen que dejar la habitación antes de las 10 de la mañana

    • running is against the rules, it's against the rules to run — está prohibido correr

    • to break the rules — infringir las reglas or las normas or el reglamento

    • to make the rules — dictar las normas

    • to play by the rules — (fig) obedecer las reglas or las normas

    • I couldn't stand a life governed by rules and regulations — no soportaría una vida llena de reglas y normas

    • rules of the road — normas fpl or reglamento msing de tráfico

    bend 2., 1), golden, ground, work 2., 1)
    2) (=guiding principle) regla f

    • rule of three — (Math) regla f de tres

    • rule of thumb — regla f general

    as a rule of thumb, a bottle of wine holds six glasses — por regla general, una botella de vino da para seis vasos

    3) (=habit, custom) norma f

    • as a (general) rule — por regla general, en general, normalmente

    • he makes it a rule to get up early — tiene por norma or por sistema levantarse temprano

    exception
    4) (=government) gobierno m ; (=reign) reinado m

    military/one-party rule — gobierno m militar/unipartidista

    • the rule of law — el imperio de la ley

    • under British rule — bajo el dominio británico

    5) (for measuring) regla f
    2. VT
    1) (=govern) gobernar
    - rule the roost
    2) (=dominate, control) controlar, dominar
    heart 1., 2)
    3) (esp Jur) (=declare) dictaminar
    4) (=draw) [+ line] trazar; (=draw lines on) [+ paper] reglar; ruled
    3. VI
    1) (=govern) gobernar; [monarch] reinar

    • to rule over sth/sb — gobernar algo/a algn

    rod
    2) (=prevail) reinar

    United rules OK — (in graffiti) ¡aúpa United!, ¡arriba United!

    3) (=decide) [chairman, president] decidir, resolver; [judge, jury] fallar

    • to rule against sth/sb — fallar or resolver en contra de algo/algn

    • to rule in favour of sth/sb — fallar en or a favor de algo/algn, resolver en or a favor de algo/algn

    • to rule on sth — fallar or resolver or decidir en algo

    4.
    CPD

    we'll do it by or go by the rule book — lo haremos de acuerdo con las normas

    • the rule of law — el estado de derecho

    * * *
    [ruːl]
    I
    1) c (regulation, principle) regla f, norma f

    to bend o stretch the rules — apartarse un poco de las reglas

    to work to rule — ( Lab Rel) hacer* huelga de celo, trabajar a reglamento (CS)

    2) (general practice, habit) (no pl)

    as a rule — por lo general, generalmente

    3) u ( government) gobierno m; ( of monarch) reinado m

    to be under foreign rule — estar* bajo dominio extranjero

    the rule of law — el imperio de la ley; majority 1) a)

    4) c ( measure) regla f

    II
    1.
    1) (govern, control) \<\<country\>\> gobernar*, administrar; \<\<person\>\> dominar; \<\<emotion\>\> controlar
    2) ( pronounce) dictaminar
    3) ( draw) \<\<line\>\> trazar* con una regla

    ruled paper — papel m con renglones


    2.
    vi
    1)
    a) ( govern) gobernar*; \<\<monarch\>\> reinar

    to rule OVER somebody — gobernar* a alguien, reinar sobre alguien

    b) (predominate, be current) imperar
    2) ( pronounce)

    to rule (ON something) — fallar or resolver* (en algo)

    to rule against/in favor of somebody/something — fallar or resolver* en contra/a favor de alguien/algo

    •
    Phrasal Verbs:

    English-spanish dictionary > rule

  • 3 crown

    1. noun
    1) Krone, die

    the Crown — die Krone

    2) (of head) Scheitel, der; (of tree, tooth) Krone, die; (of hat) Kopfteil, das; (thing that forms the summit) Gipfel, der
    2. transitive verb

    crown somebody king/queen — jemanden zum König/zur Königin krönen

    2) (put finishing touch to) krönen

    to crown all — zur Krönung des Ganzen; (to make things even worse) um das Maß vollzumachen

    3) (Dent.) überkronen
    * * *
    1. noun
    1) (a circular, often jewelled, head-dress, especially one worn as a mark of royalty or honour: the queen's crown.) die Krone
    2) ((with capital) the king or queen or governing power in a monarchy: revenue belonging to the Crown.) der Thron
    3) (the top eg of a head, hat, hill etc: We reached the crown of the hill.) der Gipfel
    4) ((an artificial replacement for) the part of a tooth which can be seen.) die Zahnkrone
    2. verb
    1) (to make (someone) king or queen by placing a crown on his or her head: The archbishop crowned the queen.) krönen
    2) (to form the top part of (something): an iced cake crowned with a cherry.) krönen
    3) (to put an artificial crown on (a tooth).) Zahn überkronen
    4) (to hit (someone) on the head: If you do that again, I'll crown you!) jemandem eins auf's Dach geben (sl.)
    •
    - academic.ru/17517/crown_prince">crown prince
    - crown princess
    * * *
    [kraʊn]
    I. n
    1. (of a monarch) Krone f
    \crown of thorns Dornenkrone f
    to wear the [or one's] \crown die Krone tragen
    2.
    ▪ the C\crown (monarchy) die Krone; (monarch) der König/die Königin
    associate of the \crown Office Geschäftsstellenbeamte(r), -beamtin m, f
    3. (sporting title) Meisterschaftstitel m
    4. (top of head) Scheitel m; (of hill) Kuppe f; (of mountain) Gipfel m; (of a roof) [Dach]first m; (of a tooth, tree, hat) Krone f
    5. BRIT ( hist: coin) Krone f, Fünfschillingstück nt
    6.
    ▶ to steal sb's \crown jdm/einer Sache den Rang ablaufen
    II. vt
    1. (as monarch)
    ▪ to \crown sb jdn krönen
    to \crown sb world champion jdn zum Weltmeister krönen
    she's the newly \crowned world champion sie ist die frischgebackene Weltmeisterin
    3. (make perfect)
    ▪ to \crown sth etw krönen [o glanzvoll abrunden
    4. ( liter: top)
    ▪ to \crown sth etw krönen
    ▪ to \crown sb jdm eins überziehen [o aufs Dach geben] fam
    6. MED
    to \crown teeth Zähne überkronen
    7.
    ▶ to \crown it all BRIT, AUS ( iron) als [o zur] Krönung des Ganzen iron
    * * *
    [kraʊn]
    1. n
    1) (for royalty) Krone f

    to wear the crown — auf dem Thron sitzen

    2) (= coin) Krone f
    3) (= top) (of head) Wirbel m; (= skull) Schädel m; (= head measurement) Kopf(umfang) m; (of hat) Kopf m; (of road) Wölbung f; (of arch) Scheitelpunkt m; (of roof) First m; (of tooth, tree) Krone f; (of hill) Kuppe f
    4) (= size of paper) englisches Papierformat (ca. 45 × 38 cm2)
    5) (fig: climax, completion) Krönung f
    2. vt
    1) king, queen krönen

    he was crowned king — er ist zum König gekrönt worden

    2)

    (= top) the hill is crowned with trees —

    the cake was crowned with marzipan decorations — der Kuchen war zur Krönung des Ganzen (noch) mit Marzipanfiguren geschmückt

    3) (fig: form climax to) krönen
    4) (in draughts etc) eine Dame bekommen mit
    5) tooth eine Krone machen für
    6) (inf: hit) eine runterhauen (+dat) (inf)
    * * *
    crown1 [kraʊn]
    A s
    1. Antike: Sieger-, Lorbeerkranz m (auch fig), Ehrenkrone f:
    the crown of glory fig die Ruhmeskrone
    2. Krone f, Kranz m:
    martyr’s crown Märtyrerkrone
    3. fig Krone f, Palme f, ehrenvolle Auszeichnung, SPORT auch (Meister)Titel m
    4. a) (Königs- etc) Krone f
    b) Herrschermacht f, -würde f:
    succeed to the crown den Thron besteigen, die Thronfolge antreten
    a) die Krone, der Souverän, der König, die Königin,
    b) der Staat, der Fiskus:
    crown cases JUR Br Strafsachen;
    crown property Br fiskalisches Eigentum
    6. Krone f:
    a) HIST Crown f (englisches Fünfschillingstück):
    half a crown eine halbe Krone; 2 Schilling, 6 Pence
    b) Währungseinheit in Schweden, Tschechien etc
    7. BOT
    a) (Baum) Krone f
    b) Haarkrone f
    c) Wurzelhals m
    d) Nebenkrone f (bei Narzissen etc)
    8. Scheitel m, Wirbel m (des Kopfes)
    9. Kopf m, Schädel m:
    break one’s crown sich den Schädel einschlagen
    10. ORN Kamm m, Schopf m, Krönchen n
    11. a) ANAT (Zahn) Krone f
    b) Zahnmedizin: Krone f
    12. höchster Punkt, Scheitel(punkt) m, Gipfel m
    13. fig Krönung f, Krone f, Höhepunkt m, Gipfel(punkt) m, Schlussstein m:
    the crown of his life die Krönung seines Lebens
    14. ARCH
    a) Scheitelpunkt m (eines Bogens)
    b) Bekrönung f
    15. SCHIFF
    a) (Anker)Kreuz n
    b) Kreuzknoten m
    16. TECH
    a) Haube f (einer Glocke)
    b) Gichtmantel m, Ofengewölbe n
    c) Kuppel f (eines Glasofens)
    d) Schleusenhaupt n
    e) (Aufzugs)Krone f (der Uhr)
    f) (Hut)Krone f
    17. Krone f (oberer Teil des Brillanten)
    18. Kronenpapier n ( USA: 15 x 19 Zoll, GB: 15 x 20 Zoll)
    B v/t
    1. (be)krönen, bekränzen:
    be crowned king zum König gekrönt werden
    2. fig allg krönen:
    a) ehren, auszeichnen:
    crown sb athlete of the year jemanden zum Sportler des Jahres krönen oder küren
    b) schmücken, zieren
    c) den Gipfel oder den Höhepunkt bilden von (oder gen):
    crown all alles überbieten, allem die Krone aufsetzen (a. iron);
    crown it all (Redew) zu allem Überfluss oder Unglück
    d) erfolgreich oder glorreich abschließen:
    crowned with success von Erfolg gekrönt;
    to open a bottle of champagne to crown the feast zur Krönung oder zum krönenden Abschluss des Festes
    3. Damespiel: zur Dame machen
    4. MED einen Zahn überkronen
    5. mit einem Kronenverschluss versehen
    6. sl jemandem eins aufs Dach geben:
    crown sb with a beer bottle jemandem eine Bierflasche über den Schädel schlagen
    crown2 [krəʊn] obs pperf von crow2
    * * *
    1. noun
    1) Krone, die
    2) (of head) Scheitel, der; (of tree, tooth) Krone, die; (of hat) Kopfteil, das; (thing that forms the summit) Gipfel, der
    2. transitive verb

    crown somebody king/queen — jemanden zum König/zur Königin krönen

    to crown all — zur Krönung des Ganzen; (to make things even worse) um das Maß vollzumachen

    3) (Dent.) überkronen
    * * *
    (dentistry) n.
    Zahnkrone f. n.
    Krone -n f. v.
    krönen v.

    English-german dictionary > crown

  • 4 ruling

    adjective (governing: the ruling party.) gobernante, reinante, dirigente, en el poder
    tr['rʊːlɪŋ]
    1 (in charge) dirigente; (governing) en el poder; (reigning) reinante
    1 SMALLLAW/SMALL fallo
    ruling ['ru:lɪŋ] n
    : resolución f, fallo m
    adj.
    • gobernante adj.
    • imperante adj.
    • que rige adj.
    • regente adj.
    n.
    • gobernante s.m.

    I 'ruːlɪŋ
    noun fallo m, resolución f

    to give o make a ruling that... — fallar or resolver* que...


    II
    adjective (before n)
    a) ( in power) < monarch> reinante
    b) ( dominant) <principle/factor> dominante
    ['ruːlɪŋ]
    1. ADJ
    1) (=governing) [class, body] dirigente; [party] en el poder; [monarch] reinante

    ruling planet — (Astrol) planeta m dominante

    2) (=predominant) [passion, factor] dominante
    3) (Econ) [price] que rige, vigente
    2.
    N (Jur) fallo m, resolución f ; (Admin, Sport) decisión f
    * * *

    I ['ruːlɪŋ]
    noun fallo m, resolución f

    to give o make a ruling that... — fallar or resolver* que...


    II
    adjective (before n)
    a) ( in power) < monarch> reinante
    b) ( dominant) <principle/factor> dominante

    English-spanish dictionary > ruling

  • 5 rule

    1. noun
    1) (principle) Regel, die

    the rules of the game — (lit. or fig.) die Spielregeln

    stick to or play by the rules — (lit. or fig.) sich an die Spielregeln halten

    be against the rules — regelwidrig sein; (fig.) gegen die Spielregeln verstoßen

    as a rule — in der Regel

    rule of thumb — Faustregel, die

    2) (custom) Regel, die

    the rule of the house is that... — in diesem Haus ist es üblich, dass...

    3) no pl. (government) Herrschaft, die ( over über + Akk.)
    4) (graduated measure) Maß, das; (tape) Bandmaß, das; (folding) Zollstock, der
    2. transitive verb
    1) (control) beherrschen
    2) (be the ruler of) regieren; [Monarch, Diktator usw.:] herrschen über (+ Akk.)

    rule the roost [in the house] — Herr im Hause sein

    3) (give as decision) entscheiden
    4) (draw) ziehen [Linie]; (draw lines on) linieren [Papier]
    3. intransitive verb
    1) (govern) herrschen
    2) (decide, declare formally) entscheiden ( against gegen; in favour of für)

    rule on a matter — in einer Sache entscheiden

    Phrasal Verbs:
    - academic.ru/91129/rule_off">rule off
    * * *
    [ru:l] 1. noun
    1) (government: under foreign rule.) die Herrschaft
    2) (a regulation or order: school rules.) die Ordnung
    3) (what usually happens or is done; a general principle: He is an exception to the rule that fat people are usually happy.) die Regel
    4) (a general standard that guides one's actions: I make it a rule never to be late for appointments.) die Regel
    5) (a marked strip of wood, metal etc for measuring: He measured the windows with a rule.) das Lineal
    2. verb
    1) (to govern: The king ruled (the people) wisely.) regieren
    2) (to decide officially: The judge ruled that the witness should be heard.) entscheiden
    3) (to draw (a straight line): He ruled a line across the page.) ziehen
    •
    - ruled
    - ruler
    - ruling     3. noun
    (an official decision: The judge gave his ruling.) die Entscheidung
    - as a rule
    - rule off
    - rule out
    * * *
    [ru:l]
    I. n
    1. (instruction) Regel f
    where in the \rules does it say that? wo steht das?
    those are the \rules so sind nun mal die Regeln
    this is a club \rule das ist im Klub hier so üblich
    it is a \rule that... es ist eine Regel, dass...
    company \rule Betriebsvorschriften pl
    \rules and regulations Regeln und Bestimmungen
    set of \rules Regeln pl
    traffic \rules Verkehrsregeln pl
    \rules pl of procedure LAW Geschäftsordnung f
    \rule of mixtures CHEM Mischungsregel f
    \rule of three MATH Dreisatz m
    to bend [or stretch] the \rules die Regeln beugen
    to break a \rule eine Regel brechen
    to follow [or obey] [or ( form) observe] a \rule eine Regel befolgen [o einhalten]
    to know the \rules of a game die Spielregeln kennen
    to play [or go] [or do things] by the \rules sich akk an die Spielregeln halten
    according to the \rules nach den Regeln, den Regeln entsprechend
    to be against the \rules gegen die Regeln verstoßen
    2. no pl (control) Herrschaft f
    the \rule of law die Rechtsstaatlichkeit
    one-party \rule Einparteienherrschaft f
    the period of Fascist \rule die faschistische Herrschaft
    3. ( form or dated: measuring device) Lineal nt
    4. (condition) Regel f
    \rule of 72 72er Regel
    5. (line) Linie f
    6. LAW (court decision) gerichtliche Entscheidung
    7.
    ▶ as a [general] \rule normalerweise, in der Regel
    ▶ to be the \rule die Regel sein
    ▶ to make sth a \rule etw zur Regel machen
    ▶ to run the \rule over sth überprüfen, ob etw in Ordnung ist
    ▶ \rule of thumb Faustregel f; see also exception
    II. vt
    ▪ to \rule sth/sb etw/jdn regieren
    to \rule a country with a rod of iron ein Land mit eiserner Faust regieren
    ▪ to \rule sth etw beherrschen
    she \rules her household with an iron hand sie führt ihren Haushalt mit eiserner Hand
    to \rule sb's thinking jds Denken beherrschen
    to \rule a line eine Linie ziehen
    ▪ to \rule sth (to give an official decision) etw entscheiden [o anordnen] [o bestimmen]
    ▪ to \rule that... entscheiden, dass...
    the courts have \ruled his brave action [to be] illegal die Gerichte entschieden, dass seine mutige Tat illegal war
    5.
    ▶ to \rule the roost der Herr im Haus sein, die Hosen anhaben hum fam
    III. vi
    1. (control) herrschen; king, queen regieren
    2. LAW
    ▪ to \rule on sth in etw dat entscheiden
    only the appeal court can \rule on this point nur das Berufungsgericht kann in diesem Punkt entscheiden
    to \rule for [or in favour of] /against sb zu Gunsten von jdm/gegen jdn entscheiden
    3. ECON (be current) gelten
    4.
    ▶ he \rules, OK! BRIT, AUS ( hum fam) er ist der Größte!
    * * *
    [ruːl]
    1. n
    1) (= regulation) Regel f; (SPORT, CARDS) (Spiel)regel f; (ADMIN) Vorschrift f, Bestimmung f

    to bend or stretch the rules — es mit den Regeln/Vorschriften nicht so genau nehmen

    running is against the rules, it's against the rules to run — Rennen ist nicht erlaubt

    it's a rule that... —

    that's the rule of the road (Mot) the Franciscan rule — das ist im Straßenverkehr üblich die Regeln des Franziskanerordens

    as a rule of thumb — als Faustregel

    rule book — Regelheft nt, Vorschriftenbuch nt

    2) (= custom) Regel f

    I make it a rule to get up early — ich habe es mir zur Regel gemacht, früh aufzustehen

    as a (general) rule —

    3) (= authority, reign) Herrschaft f; (= period) Regierungszeit f
    4) (for measuring) Metermaß nt, Maßstab m

    a foot rule (1 foot long) (showing feet) — ein (30 cm langes) Lineal ein Maßstab m mit Fußeinteilung

    See:
    → slide rule
    2. vt
    1) (= govern) beherrschen, regieren; (individual) beherrschen, herrschen über (+acc); (fig) passions, emotion beherrschen, zügeln; person beherrschen

    to be ruled by emotions —

    if you would only be ruled by what I say — wenn du nur auf mich hören würdest

    2) (JUR, SPORT, ADMIN: give decision) entscheiden

    his question was ruled out of order —

    3) (= draw lines on) paper linieren; (= draw) line, margin ziehen
    3. vi
    1) (lit, fig: reign) herrschen (over über +acc), regieren (
    over +acc)
    2) (FIN: prices) notieren
    3) (JUR) entscheiden (against gegen, in favour of für, on in +dat)
    * * *
    rule [ruːl]
    A s
    1. Regel f, Normalfall m, (das) Übliche:
    as a rule in der Regel, normalerweise;
    as is the rule wie es allgemein üblich ist, wie gewöhnlich;
    become the rule zur Regel werden;
    make it a rule to do sth es sich zur Regel machen, etwas zu tun;
    my rule is ( oder it is a rule with me) to do sth ich habe es mir zur Regel gemacht, etwas zu tun;
    by all the rules eigentlich; → exception 1
    2. SPORT etc (Spiel)Regel f (auch fig), Richtschnur f, Grundsatz m:
    against the rules regelwidrig, gegen die Regeln;
    rules of action ( oder conduct) Verhaltensmaßregeln, Richtlinien;
    rule of thumb Faustregel;
    by rule of thumb über den Daumen gepeilt umg;
    serve as a rule als Richtschnur oder Maßstab dienen
    3. JUR etc
    a) Vorschrift f, (gesetzliche) Bestimmung, Norm f
    b) (gerichtliche) Entscheidung
    c) Rechtsgrundsatz m:
    by rule, according to rule laut Vorschrift;
    rules of the air Luftverkehrsregeln;
    rule of the road Verkehrsregeln pl; → work B 1
    4. pl (Geschäfts-, Gerichts- etc) Ordnung f:
    (standing) rules of procedure
    a) Verfahrensordnung,
    b) Geschäftsordnung
    5. auch standing rule Satzung f:
    against the rules satzungswidrig;
    the rules (and bylaws) die Satzungen, die Statuten
    6. WIRTSCH Usance f, Handelsbrauch m
    7. MATH Regel f, Rechnungsart f:
    rule of proportion, rule of three Regeldetri f, Dreisatz m;
    rule of sums Summenregel
    8. REL (Ordens) Regel f
    9. Herrschaft f, Regierung f:
    during (under) the rule of während (unter) der Regierung (gen);
    rule of law Rechtsstaatlichkeit f
    10. a) Lineal n, Maßstab m
    b) Zollstock m: → slide rule
    11. TECH
    a) Richtscheit n
    b) Winkel(eisen) m(n), -maß n
    12. TYPO
    a) (Messing) Linie f:
    rule case Linienkasten m
    b) Kolumnenmaß n (Satzspiegel)
    c) Br Strich m:
    em rule Gedankenstrich;
    en rule Halbgeviert n
    13. the Rules pl Br HIST Gebiet in der Nähe einiger Gefängnisse, in dem sich Gefangene gegen Kaution aufhalten konnten
    B v/t
    1. ein Land etc, auch fig ein Gefühl etc beherrschen, herrschen oder Gewalt haben über (akk), regieren:
    rule the roost fig das Regiment führen, Herr im Haus sein;
    rule o.s. sich beherrschen
    2. lenken, leiten:
    be ruled by sich leiten lassen von
    3. fig (vor)herrschen in (dat)
    4. anordnen, verfügen, bestimmen, entscheiden ( alle:
    that dass):
    a) jemanden od etwas ausschließen ( auch SPORT),
    b) etwas ablehnen;
    rule sth out of order etwas nicht zulassen oder für regelwidrig erklären;
    rule sb out of order jemandem das Wort entziehen;
    rule offside SPORT auf Abseits entscheiden
    5. a) Papier linieren
    b) eine Linie ziehen:
    rule sth off einen Schlussstrich unter etwas ziehen;
    rule sth out etwas durchstreichen;
    ruled paper liniertes Papier; (Weberei) Musterpapier n
    C v/i
    1. herrschen oder regieren ( over über akk): → O.K. B 1 a
    2. entscheiden (in sb’s favo[u]r zu jemandes Gunsten)
    3. WIRTSCH hoch etc stehen, liegen, notieren:
    rule high (low)
    4. vorherrschen
    5. gelten, in Kraft sein (Recht etc)
    * * *
    1. noun
    1) (principle) Regel, die

    the rules of the game — (lit. or fig.) die Spielregeln

    stick to or play by the rules — (lit. or fig.) sich an die Spielregeln halten

    be against the rules — regelwidrig sein; (fig.) gegen die Spielregeln verstoßen

    rule of thumb — Faustregel, die

    2) (custom) Regel, die

    the rule of the house is that... — in diesem Haus ist es üblich, dass...

    3) no pl. (government) Herrschaft, die ( over über + Akk.)
    4) (graduated measure) Maß, das; (tape) Bandmaß, das; (folding) Zollstock, der
    2. transitive verb
    1) (control) beherrschen
    2) (be the ruler of) regieren; [Monarch, Diktator usw.:] herrschen über (+ Akk.)

    rule the roost [in the house] — Herr im Hause sein

    3) (give as decision) entscheiden
    4) (draw) ziehen [Linie]; (draw lines on) linieren [Papier]
    3. intransitive verb
    1) (govern) herrschen
    2) (decide, declare formally) entscheiden ( against gegen; in favour of für)
    Phrasal Verbs:
    * * *
    n.
    Herrschaft f.
    Maßstab -¨e m.
    Regel -n f. v.
    beherrschen v.
    herrschen v.
    herschen v.
    regeln v.

    English-german dictionary > rule

  • 6 subject

    1. noun
    1) (citizen) Staatsbürger, der/-bürgerin, die; (in relation to monarch) Untertan, der/Untertanin, die
    2) (topic) Thema, das; (department of study) Fach, das; (area of knowledge) Fach[gebiet], das; (Art) Motiv, das; (Mus.) Thema, das

    on the subject of money — über das Thema Geld [reden usw.]; beim Thema Geld [sein, bleiben]

    3)

    be a subject for something — (cause something) zu etwas Anlass geben

    4) (Ling., Logic, Philos.) Subjekt, das
    2. adjective
    1) (conditional)
    2) (prone)

    be subject to — anfällig sein für [Krankheit]; neigen zu [Melancholie]

    3) (dependent) abhängig

    subject to — (dependent on) untertan (+ Dat.) [König usw.]; unterworfen (+ Dat.) [Verfassung, Gesetz, Krone]; untergeben (+ Dat.) [Dienstherrn]

    3. adverb 4. transitive verb
    1) (subjugate, make submissive) unterwerfen (to Dat.)
    2) (expose)

    subject somebody/something to something — jemanden/etwas einer Sache (Dat.) aussetzen

    * * *
    1. adjective
    ((of countries etc) not independent, but dominated by another power: subject nations.) abhängig
    2. noun
    1) (a person who is under the rule of a monarch or a member of a country that has a monarchy etc: We are loyal subjects of the Queen; He is a British subject.) der/die Untertan(in)
    2) (someone or something that is talked about, written about etc: We discussed the price of food and similar subjects; What was the subject of the debate?; The teacher tried to think of a good subject for their essay; I've said all I can on that subject.) der Gegenstad
    3) (a branch of study or learning in school, university etc: He is taking exams in seven subjects; Mathematics is his best subject.) das Fach
    4) (a thing, person or circumstance suitable for, or requiring, a particular kind of treatment, reaction etc: I don't think her behaviour is a subject for laughter.) der Gegenstand
    5) (in English, the word(s) representing the person or thing that usually does the action shown by the verb, and with which the verb agrees: The cat sat on the mat; He hit her because she broke his toy; He was hit by the ball.) das Subjekt
    3. [səb'‹ekt] verb
    1) (to bring (a person, country etc) under control: They have subjected all the neighbouring states (to their rule).) unterwerfen
    2) (to cause to suffer, or submit (to something): He was subjected to cruel treatment; These tyres are subjected to various tests before leaving the factory.) aussetzen
    •
    - academic.ru/71616/subjection">subjection
    - subjective
    - subjectively
    - subject matter
    - change the subject
    - subject to
    * * *
    sub·ject
    I. n
    [ˈsʌbʤɪkt, -ʤekt]
    1. (theme, topic) Thema nt
    ▪ on the \subject of sb/sth über jdn/etw
    while we're on the \subject wo wir gerade beim Thema sind
    the planes have been the \subject of their concern die Flugzeuge waren Gegenstand ihrer Befürchtungen
    the guest lecturer took as her \subject ‘imprisonment in modern society’ die Gastsprecherin hatte ‚die Freiheitsstrafe in der modernen Gesellschaft‘ zu ihrem Thema gewählt
    \subject of debate [or discussion] Diskussionsthema nt
    the plan has been the \subject of debate recently über den Plan wurde vor Kurzem diskutiert
    to change the \subject das Thema wechseln
    to wander off the \subject vom Thema abschweifen
    2. (person) Versuchsperson f, Testperson f
    3. (field) Fach nt; (at school) [Schul]fach nt; (specific research area) Spezialgebiet nt, Fachgebiet nt
    he's better at arts \subjects than science in den künstlerischen Fächern ist er besser als in den naturwissenschaftlichen
    her \subject is low-temperature physics sie hat sich auf Kältephysik spezialisiert
    favourite [or AM favorite] \subject Lieblingsfach nt
    4. (under monarchy) Untertan(in) m(f); ( rare: not under monarchy) Staatsbürger(in) m(f)
    5. LING Subjekt nt, Satzgegenstand m
    II. adj
    [ˈsʌbʤɪkt]
    1. attr, inv POL (dominated) people unterworfen
    2. pred, inv (exposed to)
    ▪ to be \subject to sth etw dat ausgesetzt sein
    these flights are \subject to delay bei diesen Flügen muss mit Verspätung gerechnet werden
    the goods are \subject to a 20% discount die Waren sind um 20 % herabgesetzt
    to be \subject to colds sich akk leicht erkälten
    to be \subject to many dangers vielen Gefahren ausgesetzt sein
    to be \subject to depression zu Depressionen neigen
    to be \subject to a high rate of tax einer hohen Steuer unterliegen
    to be \subject to prosecution LAW offence strafbar sein; person strafrechtlich verfolgt werden
    3. (contingent on)
    ▪ to be \subject to sth von etw dat abhängig sein
    to be \subject to approval genehmigungspflichtig sein
    \subject to payment vorbehaltlich einer Zahlung, unter dem Vorbehalt einer Zahlung
    III. adv
    [ˈsʌbʤɪkt]
    ▪ \subject to wenn
    we plan to go on Wednesday \subject to your approval wir haben vor, am Mittwoch zu gehen, wenn du nichts dagegen hast
    \subject to your consent vorbehaltlich Ihrer Zustimmung
    IV. vt
    [səbˈʤekt]
    ▪ to \subject sb/sth jdn/etw unterwerfen [o geh unterjochen
    2. usu passive (cause to undergo)
    ▪ to \subject sb/sth to sth jdn/etw etw dat aussetzen
    ▪ to be \subjected to sb/sth jdm/etw ausgesetzt [o unterworfen] sein
    everyone interviewed had been \subjected to unfair treatment alle Interviewten waren unfair behandelt worden
    to \subject sb/sth to criticism jdn/etw kritisieren
    to \subject sb to a lie-detector test jdn einem Lügendetektortest unterziehen
    to \subject sb to torture jdn foltern
    * * *
    ['sʌbdZɪkt]
    1. n
    1) (POL) Staatsbürger(in) m(f); (of king etc) Untertan m, Untertanin f
    2) (GRAM) Subjekt nt, Satzgegenstand m
    3) (= topic MUS) Thema nt

    the subject of the picture is... — das Thema or Sujet (geh)

    he paints urban subjects — er malt städtische Motive

    on the subject of... — zum Thema (+gen)...

    while we're on the subject — da wir gerade beim Thema sind

    while we're on the subject of mushrooms — wo wir gerade von Pilzen reden, apropos Pilze

    4) (= discipline SCH, UNIV) Fach nt; (= specialist subject) (Spezial)gebiet nt
    5) (= reason) Grund m, Anlass m (for zu)
    6) (= object) Gegenstand m (
    of +gen in experiment, = person) Versuchsperson f, Versuchsobjekt nt; (= animal) Versuchstier nt, Versuchsobjekt nt; (ESP MED, for treatment) Typ m

    he is the subject of much criticism — er wird stark kritisiert, er ist Gegenstand häufiger Kritik

    7) (PHILOS: ego) Subjekt nt, Ich nt
    8) (PHOT) Objekt nt
    2. adj
    1) (= conquered) unterworfen
    2)

    provinces subject to foreign rule — Provinzen pl unter Fremdherrschaft

    to be subject to sth (to law, constant change, sb's will) — einer Sache (dat) unterworfen sein; to illness für etw anfällig sein; to consent, approval von etw abhängig sein

    prices/opening times are subject to change or alteration without notice — Preisänderungen/Änderungen der Öffnungszeiten sind vorbehalten

    all these plans are subject to last minute changes — all diese Pläne können in letzter Minute noch geändert werden

    subject to confirmation in writing — vorausgesetzt, es wird schriftlich bestätigt

    3. vt
    [səb'dZekt]
    1) (= subjugate) unterwerfen; terrorists, guerrillas zerschlagen
    2)

    to subject sb to sth (to questioning, analysis, treatment) — jdn einer Sache (dat) unterziehen; to test also jdn einer Sache (dat) unterwerfen; to torture, suffering, heat, ridicule, criticism jdn einer Sache (dat) aussetzen

    to subject sb to criticism — jdn unter Kritik nehmen, jdn kritisieren

    4. vr
    [səb'dZekt]

    to subject oneself to sth (to insults, suffering) — etw hinnehmen; (to criticism, ridicule) sich einer Sache (dat) aussetzen; (to examination, test, questioning) sich einer Sache (dat) unterziehen

    * * *
    subject [ˈsʌbdʒıkt]
    A s
    1. (Gesprächs- etc) Gegenstand m, Thema n, Stoff m:
    a subject for debate ein Diskussionsthema;
    change the subject das Thema wechseln, von etwas anderem reden;
    don’t change the subject lenk nicht ab!;
    a) über (akk), bezüglich (gen),
    b) (in Briefen) betrifft, meist abk betr
    2. SCHULE, UNIV (Lehr-, Schul-, Studien)Fach n, Fachgebiet n:
    cooking has never been her subject Kochen war noch nie ihr Fach
    3. Grund m, Anlass m ( beide:
    for complaint zur Beschwerde)
    4. Gegenstand m, Objekt n:
    the subject of ridicule der Gegenstand des Spottes
    5. MUS Thema n (einer Fuge)
    6. KUNST Vorwurf m, Thema n, Sujet n
    7. a) Untertan(in)
    b) Staatsbürger(in), -angehörige(r) m/f(m):
    he is a British subject er hat oder besitzt die britische Staatsangehörigkeit
    8. LING Subjekt n, Satzgegenstand m
    9. MED etc
    a) (Versuchs)Objekt n
    b) Versuchsperson f oder -tier n
    c) Leichnam m (für Sektionszwecke)
    d) Patient(in)
    10. (ohne art) die betreffende Person (in Informationen)
    11. Logik: Subjekt(sbegriff) n(m)
    12. PHIL
    a) Substanz f
    b) Subjekt n, Ich n:
    subject and object Subjekt und Objekt, Ich und Nicht-Ich
    B adj
    1. untertan, untergeben ( beide:
    to dat)
    2. abhängig (to von) (Staat etc)
    3. ausgesetzt (to dat):
    4. (to) unterworfen, -liegend (dat), abhängig (von), vorbehaltlich (gen):
    subject to approval ( oder authorization) genehmigungspflichtig;
    be subject to the approval of (erst noch) genehmigt werden müssen von;
    “subject to change” „Änderungen vorbehalten“;
    “subject to change without notice” WIRTSCH „freibleibend“;
    subject to consent vorbehaltlich Ihrer Zustimmung;
    subject to duty zollpflichtig;
    subject to the laws of nature den Naturgesetzen unterworfen;
    “subject to prior sale” WIRTSCH „Zwischenverkauf vorbehalten“
    5. anfällig (to für):
    he’s subject to headaches er neigt zu Kopfschmerzen
    C v/t [səbˈdʒekt]
    1. (to) unterwerfen, -jochen, untertan machen (dat), abhängig machen (von)
    2. fig unterwerfen, -ziehen, aussetzen ( alle:
    to dat):
    subject sb to a test jemanden einer Prüfung unterziehen;
    subject o.s. to ridicule sich dem Gespött aussetzen
    * * *
    1. noun
    1) (citizen) Staatsbürger, der/-bürgerin, die; (in relation to monarch) Untertan, der/Untertanin, die
    2) (topic) Thema, das; (department of study) Fach, das; (area of knowledge) Fach[gebiet], das; (Art) Motiv, das; (Mus.) Thema, das

    on the subject of money — über das Thema Geld [reden usw.]; beim Thema Geld [sein, bleiben]

    3)

    be a subject for something — (cause something) zu etwas Anlass geben

    4) (Ling., Logic, Philos.) Subjekt, das
    2. adjective
    1) (conditional)

    be subject to — anfällig sein für [Krankheit]; neigen zu [Melancholie]

    3) (dependent) abhängig

    subject to — (dependent on) untertan (+ Dat.) [König usw.]; unterworfen (+ Dat.) [Verfassung, Gesetz, Krone]; untergeben (+ Dat.) [Dienstherrn]

    3. adverb 4. transitive verb
    1) (subjugate, make submissive) unterwerfen (to Dat.)

    subject somebody/something to something — jemanden/etwas einer Sache (Dat.) aussetzen

    * * *
    (grammar) n.
    Satzgegenstand f. (one who is submitted to a higher authority) n.
    Untertan -en m. (school) n.
    Schulfach n. n.
    Fach ¨-er n.
    Fragenkomplex m.
    Gegenstand m.
    Lehrfach -¨er n.
    Subjekt -e n.
    Thema Themen n. v.
    unterwerfen v.

    English-german dictionary > subject

  • 7 rule

    I [ruːl]
    1) (regulation) (of game, language) regola f.; (of school, organization) regolamento m.
    2) (usual occurrence) regola f., norma f.

    as a rule — generalmente, di regola o norma

    3) U (authority) dominio m., governo m.
    4) (for measuring) righello m., regolo m.
    II 1. [ruːl]
    1) [ruler, party] governare; [ law] regolare; [ monarch] regnare su; [ army] tenere in pugno
    2) (control) [ money] dominare [ life]; [person, consideration, factor] determinare, dettare [behaviour, strategy]

    to be ruled by sb. — lasciarsi guidare o farsi condurre da qcn.

    3) (draw) fare, tirare [ line]
    4) [court, umpire]

    to rule that — decretare o sentenziare che

    2.
    1) regnare, essere al potere
    2) [court, umpire] decidere
    •
    * * *
    [ru:l] 1. noun
    1) (government: under foreign rule.) governo
    2) (a regulation or order: school rules.) regola, regolamento
    3) (what usually happens or is done; a general principle: He is an exception to the rule that fat people are usually happy.) regola
    4) (a general standard that guides one's actions: I make it a rule never to be late for appointments.) regola
    5) (a marked strip of wood, metal etc for measuring: He measured the windows with a rule.) regolo
    2. verb
    1) (to govern: The king ruled (the people) wisely.) governare
    2) (to decide officially: The judge ruled that the witness should be heard.) decidere
    3) (to draw (a straight line): He ruled a line across the page.) (tracciare una riga)
    •
    - ruler
    - ruling     3. noun
    (an official decision: The judge gave his ruling.) delibera, decisione
    - rule off
    - rule out
    * * *
    I [ruːl]
    1) (regulation) (of game, language) regola f.; (of school, organization) regolamento m.
    2) (usual occurrence) regola f., norma f.

    as a rule — generalmente, di regola o norma

    3) U (authority) dominio m., governo m.
    4) (for measuring) righello m., regolo m.
    II 1. [ruːl]
    1) [ruler, party] governare; [ law] regolare; [ monarch] regnare su; [ army] tenere in pugno
    2) (control) [ money] dominare [ life]; [person, consideration, factor] determinare, dettare [behaviour, strategy]

    to be ruled by sb. — lasciarsi guidare o farsi condurre da qcn.

    3) (draw) fare, tirare [ line]
    4) [court, umpire]

    to rule that — decretare o sentenziare che

    2.
    1) regnare, essere al potere
    2) [court, umpire] decidere
    •

    English-Italian dictionary > rule

  • 8 Historical Portugal

       Before Romans described western Iberia or Hispania as "Lusitania," ancient Iberians inhabited the land. Phoenician and Greek trading settlements grew up in the Tagus estuary area and nearby coasts. Beginning around 202 BCE, Romans invaded what is today southern Portugal. With Rome's defeat of Carthage, Romans proceeded to conquer and rule the western region north of the Tagus, which they named Roman "Lusitania." In the fourth century CE, as Rome's rule weakened, the area experienced yet another invasion—Germanic tribes, principally the Suevi, who eventually were Christianized. During the sixth century CE, the Suevi kingdom was superseded by yet another Germanic tribe—the Christian Visigoths.
       A major turning point in Portugal's history came in 711, as Muslim armies from North Africa, consisting of both Arab and Berber elements, invaded the Iberian Peninsula from across the Straits of Gibraltar. They entered what is now Portugal in 714, and proceeded to conquer most of the country except for the far north. For the next half a millennium, Islam and Muslim presence in Portugal left a significant mark upon the politics, government, language, and culture of the country.
       Islam, Reconquest, and Portugal Created, 714-1140
       The long frontier struggle between Muslim invaders and Christian communities in the north of the Iberian peninsula was called the Reconquista (Reconquest). It was during this struggle that the first dynasty of Portuguese kings (Burgundian) emerged and the independent monarchy of Portugal was established. Christian forces moved south from what is now the extreme north of Portugal and gradually defeated Muslim forces, besieging and capturing towns under Muslim sway. In the ninth century, as Christian forces slowly made their way southward, Christian elements were dominant only in the area between Minho province and the Douro River; this region became known as "territorium Portu-calense."
       In the 11th century, the advance of the Reconquest quickened as local Christian armies were reinforced by crusading knights from what is now France and England. Christian forces took Montemor (1034), at the Mondego River; Lamego (1058); Viseu (1058); and Coimbra (1064). In 1095, the king of Castile and Léon granted the country of "Portu-cale," what became northern Portugal, to a Burgundian count who had emigrated from France. This was the foundation of Portugal. In 1139, a descendant of this count, Afonso Henriques, proclaimed himself "King of Portugal." He was Portugal's first monarch, the "Founder," and the first of the Burgundian dynasty, which ruled until 1385.
       The emergence of Portugal in the 12th century as a separate monarchy in Iberia occurred before the Christian Reconquest of the peninsula. In the 1140s, the pope in Rome recognized Afonso Henriques as king of Portugal. In 1147, after a long, bloody siege, Muslim-occupied Lisbon fell to Afonso Henriques's army. Lisbon was the greatest prize of the 500-year war. Assisting this effort were English crusaders on their way to the Holy Land; the first bishop of Lisbon was an Englishman. When the Portuguese captured Faro and Silves in the Algarve province in 1248-50, the Reconquest of the extreme western portion of the Iberian peninsula was complete—significantly, more than two centuries before the Spanish crown completed the Reconquest of the eastern portion by capturing Granada in 1492.
       Consolidation and Independence of Burgundian Portugal, 1140-1385
       Two main themes of Portugal's early existence as a monarchy are the consolidation of control over the realm and the defeat of a Castil-ian threat from the east to its independence. At the end of this period came the birth of a new royal dynasty (Aviz), which prepared to carry the Christian Reconquest beyond continental Portugal across the straits of Gibraltar to North Africa. There was a variety of motives behind these developments. Portugal's independent existence was imperiled by threats from neighboring Iberian kingdoms to the north and east. Politics were dominated not only by efforts against the Muslims in
       Portugal (until 1250) and in nearby southern Spain (until 1492), but also by internecine warfare among the kingdoms of Castile, Léon, Aragon, and Portugal. A final comeback of Muslim forces was defeated at the battle of Salado (1340) by allied Castilian and Portuguese forces. In the emerging Kingdom of Portugal, the monarch gradually gained power over and neutralized the nobility and the Church.
       The historic and commonplace Portuguese saying "From Spain, neither a good wind nor a good marriage" was literally played out in diplomacy and war in the late 14th-century struggles for mastery in the peninsula. Larger, more populous Castile was pitted against smaller Portugal. Castile's Juan I intended to force a union between Castile and Portugal during this era of confusion and conflict. In late 1383, Portugal's King Fernando, the last king of the Burgundian dynasty, suddenly died prematurely at age 38, and the Master of Aviz, Portugal's most powerful nobleman, took up the cause of independence and resistance against Castile's invasion. The Master of Aviz, who became King João I of Portugal, was able to obtain foreign assistance. With the aid of English archers, Joao's armies defeated the Castilians in the crucial battle of Aljubarrota, on 14 August 1385, a victory that assured the independence of the Portuguese monarchy from its Castilian nemesis for several centuries.
       Aviz Dynasty and Portugal's First Overseas Empire, 1385-1580
       The results of the victory at Aljubarrota, much celebrated in Portugal's art and monuments, and the rise of the Aviz dynasty also helped to establish a new merchant class in Lisbon and Oporto, Portugal's second city. This group supported King João I's program of carrying the Reconquest to North Africa, since it was interested in expanding Portugal's foreign commerce and tapping into Muslim trade routes and resources in Africa. With the Reconquest against the Muslims completed in Portugal and the threat from Castile thwarted for the moment, the Aviz dynasty launched an era of overseas conquest, exploration, and trade. These efforts dominated Portugal's 15th and 16th centuries.
       The overseas empire and age of Discoveries began with Portugal's bold conquest in 1415 of the Moroccan city of Ceuta. One royal member of the 1415 expedition was young, 21-year-old Prince Henry, later known in history as "Prince Henry the Navigator." His part in the capture of Ceuta won Henry his knighthood and began Portugal's "Marvelous Century," during which the small kingdom was counted as a European and world power of consequence. Henry was the son of King João I and his English queen, Philippa of Lancaster, but he did not inherit the throne. Instead, he spent most of his life and his fortune, and that of the wealthy military Order of Christ, on various imperial ventures and on voyages of exploration down the African coast and into the Atlantic. While mythology has surrounded Henry's controversial role in the Discoveries, and this role has been exaggerated, there is no doubt that he played a vital part in the initiation of Portugal's first overseas empire and in encouraging exploration. He was naturally curious, had a sense of mission for Portugal, and was a strong leader. He also had wealth to expend; at least a third of the African voyages of the time were under his sponsorship. If Prince Henry himself knew little science, significant scientific advances in navigation were made in his day.
       What were Portugal's motives for this new imperial effort? The well-worn historical cliche of "God, Glory, and Gold" can only partly explain the motivation of a small kingdom with few natural resources and barely 1 million people, which was greatly outnumbered by the other powers it confronted. Among Portuguese objectives were the desire to exploit known North African trade routes and resources (gold, wheat, leather, weaponry, and other goods that were scarce in Iberia); the need to outflank the Muslim world in the Mediterranean by sailing around Africa, attacking Muslims en route; and the wish to ally with Christian kingdoms beyond Africa. This enterprise also involved a strategy of breaking the Venetian spice monopoly by trading directly with the East by means of discovering and exploiting a sea route around Africa to Asia. Besides the commercial motives, Portugal nurtured a strong crusading sense of Christian mission, and various classes in the kingdom saw an opportunity for fame and gain.
       By the time of Prince Henry's death in 1460, Portugal had gained control of the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeiras, begun to colonize the Cape Verde Islands, failed to conquer the Canary Islands from Castile, captured various cities on Morocco's coast, and explored as far as Senegal, West Africa, down the African coast. By 1488, Bar-tolomeu Dias had rounded the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa and thereby discovered the way to the Indian Ocean.
       Portugal's largely coastal African empire and later its fragile Asian empire brought unexpected wealth but were purchased at a high price. Costs included wars of conquest and defense against rival powers, manning the far-flung navel and trade fleets and scattered castle-fortresses, and staffing its small but fierce armies, all of which entailed a loss of skills and population to maintain a scattered empire. Always short of capital, the monarchy became indebted to bankers. There were many defeats beginning in the 16th century at the hands of the larger imperial European monarchies (Spain, France, England, and Holland) and many attacks on Portugal and its strung-out empire. Typically, there was also the conflict that arose when a tenuously held world empire that rarely if ever paid its way demanded finance and manpower Portugal itself lacked.
       The first 80 years of the glorious imperial era, the golden age of Portugal's imperial power and world influence, was an African phase. During 1415-88, Portuguese navigators and explorers in small ships, some of them caravelas (caravels), explored the treacherous, disease-ridden coasts of Africa from Morocco to South Africa beyond the Cape of Good Hope. By the 1470s, the Portuguese had reached the Gulf of Guinea and, in the early 1480s, what is now Angola. Bartolomeu Dias's extraordinary voyage of 1487-88 to South Africa's coast and the edge of the Indian Ocean convinced Portugal that the best route to Asia's spices and Christians lay south, around the tip of southern Africa. Between 1488 and 1495, there was a hiatus caused in part by domestic conflict in Portugal, discussion of resources available for further conquests beyond Africa in Asia, and serious questions as to Portugal's capacity to reach beyond Africa. In 1495, King Manuel and his council decided to strike for Asia, whatever the consequences. In 1497-99, Vasco da Gama, under royal orders, made the epic two-year voyage that discovered the sea route to western India (Asia), outflanked Islam and Venice, and began Portugal's Asian empire. Within 50 years, Portugal had discovered and begun the exploitation of its largest colony, Brazil, and set up forts and trading posts from the Middle East (Aden and Ormuz), India (Calicut, Goa, etc.), Malacca, and Indonesia to Macau in China.
       By the 1550s, parts of its largely coastal, maritime trading post empire from Morocco to the Moluccas were under siege from various hostile forces, including Muslims, Christians, and Hindi. Although Moroccan forces expelled the Portuguese from the major coastal cities by 1550, the rival European monarchies of Castile (Spain), England, France, and later Holland began to seize portions of her undermanned, outgunned maritime empire.
       In 1580, Phillip II of Spain, whose mother was a Portuguese princess and who had a strong claim to the Portuguese throne, invaded Portugal, claimed the throne, and assumed control over the realm and, by extension, its African, Asian, and American empires. Phillip II filled the power vacuum that appeared in Portugal following the loss of most of Portugal's army and its young, headstrong King Sebastião in a disastrous war in Morocco. Sebastiao's death in battle (1578) and the lack of a natural heir to succeed him, as well as the weak leadership of the cardinal who briefly assumed control in Lisbon, led to a crisis that Spain's strong monarch exploited. As a result, Portugal lost its independence to Spain for a period of 60 years.
       Portugal under Spanish Rule, 1580-1640
       Despite the disastrous nature of Portugal's experience under Spanish rule, "The Babylonian Captivity" gave birth to modern Portuguese nationalism, its second overseas empire, and its modern alliance system with England. Although Spain allowed Portugal's weakened empire some autonomy, Spanish rule in Portugal became increasingly burdensome and unacceptable. Spain's ambitious imperial efforts in Europe and overseas had an impact on the Portuguese as Spain made greater and greater demands on its smaller neighbor for manpower and money. Portugal's culture underwent a controversial Castilianization, while its empire became hostage to Spain's fortunes. New rival powers England, France, and Holland attacked and took parts of Spain's empire and at the same time attacked Portugal's empire, as well as the mother country.
       Portugal's empire bore the consequences of being attacked by Spain's bitter enemies in what was a form of world war. Portuguese losses were heavy. By 1640, Portugal had lost most of its Moroccan cities as well as Ceylon, the Moluccas, and sections of India. With this, Portugal's Asian empire was gravely weakened. Only Goa, Damão, Diu, Bombay, Timor, and Macau remained and, in Brazil, Dutch forces occupied the northeast.
       On 1 December 1640, long commemorated as a national holiday, Portuguese rebels led by the duke of Braganza overthrew Spanish domination and took advantage of Spanish weakness following a more serious rebellion in Catalonia. Portugal regained independence from Spain, but at a price: dependence on foreign assistance to maintain its independence in the form of the renewal of the alliance with England.
       Restoration and Second Empire, 1640-1822
       Foreign affairs and empire dominated the restoration era and aftermath, and Portugal again briefly enjoyed greater European power and prestige. The Anglo-Portuguese Alliance was renewed and strengthened in treaties of 1642, 1654, and 1661, and Portugal's independence from Spain was underwritten by English pledges and armed assistance. In a Luso-Spanish treaty of 1668, Spain recognized Portugal's independence. Portugal's alliance with England was a marriage of convenience and necessity between two monarchies with important religious, cultural, and social differences. In return for legal, diplomatic, and trade privileges, as well as the use during war and peace of Portugal's great Lisbon harbor and colonial ports for England's navy, England pledged to protect Portugal and its scattered empire from any attack. The previously cited 17th-century alliance treaties were renewed later in the Treaty of Windsor, signed in London in 1899. On at least 10 different occasions after 1640, and during the next two centuries, England was central in helping prevent or repel foreign invasions of its ally, Portugal.
       Portugal's second empire (1640-1822) was largely Brazil-oriented. Portuguese colonization, exploitation of wealth, and emigration focused on Portuguese America, and imperial revenues came chiefly from Brazil. Between 1670 and 1740, Portugal's royalty and nobility grew wealthier on funds derived from Brazilian gold, diamonds, sugar, tobacco, and other crops, an enterprise supported by the Atlantic slave trade and the supply of African slave labor from West Africa and Angola. Visitors today can see where much of that wealth was invested: Portugal's rich legacy of monumental architecture. Meanwhile, the African slave trade took a toll in Angola and West Africa.
       In continental Portugal, absolutist monarchy dominated politics and government, and there was a struggle for position and power between the monarchy and other institutions, such as the Church and nobility. King José I's chief minister, usually known in history as the marquis of Pombal (ruled 1750-77), sharply suppressed the nobility and the
       Church (including the Inquisition, now a weak institution) and expelled the Jesuits. Pombal also made an effort to reduce economic dependence on England, Portugal's oldest ally. But his successes did not last much beyond his disputed time in office.
       Beginning in the late 18th century, the European-wide impact of the French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon placed Portugal in a vulnerable position. With the monarchy ineffectively led by an insane queen (Maria I) and her indecisive regent son (João VI), Portugal again became the focus of foreign ambition and aggression. With England unable to provide decisive assistance in time, France—with Spain's consent—invaded Portugal in 1807. As Napoleon's army under General Junot entered Lisbon meeting no resistance, Portugal's royal family fled on a British fleet to Brazil, where it remained in exile until 1821. In the meantime, Portugal's overseas empire was again under threat. There was a power vacuum as the monarch was absent, foreign armies were present, and new political notions of liberalism and constitutional monarchy were exciting various groups of citizens.
       Again England came to the rescue, this time in the form of the armies of the duke of Wellington. Three successive French invasions of Portugal were defeated and expelled, and Wellington succeeded in carrying the war against Napoleon across the Portuguese frontier into Spain. The presence of the English army, the new French-born liberal ideas, and the political vacuum combined to create revolutionary conditions. The French invasions and the peninsular wars, where Portuguese armed forces played a key role, marked the beginning of a new era in politics.
       Liberalism and Constitutional Monarchy, 1822-1910
       During 1807-22, foreign invasions, war, and civil strife over conflicting political ideas gravely damaged Portugal's commerce, economy, and novice industry. The next terrible blow was the loss of Brazil in 1822, the jewel in the imperial crown. Portugal's very independence seemed to be at risk. In vain, Portugal sought to resist Brazilian independence by force, but in 1825 it formally acknowledged Brazilian independence by treaty.
       Portugal's slow recovery from the destructive French invasions and the "war of independence" was complicated by civil strife over the form of constitutional monarchy that best suited Portugal. After struggles over these issues between 1820 and 1834, Portugal settled somewhat uncertainly into a moderate constitutional monarchy whose constitution (Charter of 1826) lent it strong political powers to exert a moderating influence between the executive and legislative branches of the government. It also featured a new upper middle class based on land ownership and commerce; a Catholic Church that, although still important, lived with reduced privileges and property; a largely African (third) empire to which Lisbon and Oporto devoted increasing spiritual and material resources, starting with the liberal imperial plans of 1836 and 1851, and continuing with the work of institutions like the Lisbon Society of Geography (established 1875); and a mass of rural peasants whose bonds to the land weakened after 1850 and who began to immigrate in increasing numbers to Brazil and North America.
       Chronic military intervention in national politics began in 19th-century Portugal. Such intervention, usually commencing with coups or pronunciamentos (military revolts), was a shortcut to the spoils of political office and could reflect popular discontent as well as the power of personalities. An early example of this was the 1817 golpe (coup) attempt of General Gomes Freire against British military rule in Portugal before the return of King João VI from Brazil. Except for a more stable period from 1851 to 1880, military intervention in politics, or the threat thereof, became a feature of the constitutional monarchy's political life, and it continued into the First Republic and the subsequent Estado Novo.
       Beginning with the Regeneration period (1851-80), Portugal experienced greater political stability and economic progress. Military intervention in politics virtually ceased; industrialization and construction of railroads, roads, and bridges proceeded; two political parties (Regenerators and Historicals) worked out a system of rotation in power; and leading intellectuals sparked a cultural revival in several fields. In 19th-century literature, there was a new golden age led by such figures as Alexandre Herculano (historian), Eça de Queirós (novelist), Almeida Garrett (playwright and essayist), Antero de Quental (poet), and Joaquim Oliveira Martins (historian and social scientist). In its third overseas empire, Portugal attempted to replace the slave trade and slavery with legitimate economic activities; to reform the administration; and to expand Portuguese holdings beyond coastal footholds deep into the African hinterlands in West, West Central, and East Africa. After 1841, to some extent, and especially after 1870, colonial affairs, combined with intense nationalism, pressures for economic profit in Africa, sentiment for national revival, and the drift of European affairs would make or break Lisbon governments.
       Beginning with the political crisis that arose out of the "English Ultimatum" affair of January 1890, the monarchy became discredtted and identified with the poorly functioning government, political parties splintered, and republicanism found more supporters. Portugal participated in the "Scramble for Africa," expanding its African holdings, but failed to annex territory connecting Angola and Mozambique. A growing foreign debt and state bankruptcy as of the early 1890s damaged the constitutional monarchy's reputation, despite the efforts of King Carlos in diplomacy, the renewal of the alliance in the Windsor Treaty of 1899, and the successful if bloody colonial wars in the empire (1880-97). Republicanism proclaimed that Portugal's weak economy and poor society were due to two historic institutions: the monarchy and the Catholic Church. A republic, its stalwarts claimed, would bring greater individual liberty; efficient, if more decentralized government; and a stronger colonial program while stripping the Church of its role in both society and education.
       As the monarchy lost support and republicans became more aggressive, violence increased in politics. King Carlos I and his heir Luís were murdered in Lisbon by anarchist-republicans on 1 February 1908. Following a military and civil insurrection and fighting between monarchist and republican forces, on 5 October 1910, King Manuel II fled Portugal and a republic was proclaimed.
       First Parliamentary Republic, 1910-26
       Portugal's first attempt at republican government was the most unstable, turbulent parliamentary republic in the history of 20th-century Western Europe. During a little under 16 years of the republic, there were 45 governments, a number of legislatures that did not complete normal terms, military coups, and only one president who completed his four-year term in office. Portuguese society was poorly prepared for this political experiment. Among the deadly legacies of the monarchy were a huge public debt; a largely rural, apolitical, and illiterate peasant population; conflict over the causes of the country's misfortunes; and lack of experience with a pluralist, democratic system.
       The republic had some talented leadership but lacked popular, institutional, and economic support. The 1911 republican constitution established only a limited democracy, as only a small portion of the adult male citizenry was eligible to vote. In a country where the majority was Catholic, the republic passed harshly anticlerical laws, and its institutions and supporters persecuted both the Church and its adherents. During its brief disjointed life, the First Republic drafted important reform plans in economic, social, and educational affairs; actively promoted development in the empire; and pursued a liberal, generous foreign policy. Following British requests for Portugal's assistance in World War I, Portugal entered the war on the Allied side in March 1916 and sent armies to Flanders and Portuguese Africa. Portugal's intervention in that conflict, however, was too costly in many respects, and the ultimate failure of the republic in part may be ascribed to Portugal's World War I activities.
       Unfortunately for the republic, its time coincided with new threats to Portugal's African possessions: World War I, social and political demands from various classes that could not be reconciled, excessive military intervention in politics, and, in particular, the worst economic and financial crisis Portugal had experienced since the 16th and 17th centuries. After the original Portuguese Republican Party (PRP, also known as the "Democrats") splintered into three warring groups in 1912, no true multiparty system emerged. The Democrats, except for only one or two elections, held an iron monopoly of electoral power, and political corruption became a major issue. As extreme right-wing dictatorships elsewhere in Europe began to take power in Italy (1922), neighboring Spain (1923), and Greece (1925), what scant popular support remained for the republic collapsed. Backed by a right-wing coalition of landowners from Alentejo, clergy, Coimbra University faculty and students, Catholic organizations, and big business, career military officers led by General Gomes da Costa executed a coup on 28 May 1926, turned out the last republican government, and established a military government.
       The Estado Novo (New State), 1926-74
       During the military phase (1926-32) of the Estado Novo, professional military officers, largely from the army, governed and administered Portugal and held key cabinet posts, but soon discovered that the military possessed no magic formula that could readily solve the problems inherited from the First Republic. Especially during the years 1926-31, the military dictatorship, even with its political repression of republican activities and institutions (military censorship of the press, political police action, and closure of the republic's rowdy parliament), was characterized by similar weaknesses: personalism and factionalism; military coups and political instability, including civil strife and loss of life; state debt and bankruptcy; and a weak economy. "Barracks parliamentarism" was not an acceptable alternative even to the "Nightmare Republic."
       Led by General Óscar Carmona, who had replaced and sent into exile General Gomes da Costa, the military dictatorship turned to a civilian expert in finance and economics to break the budget impasse and bring coherence to the disorganized system. Appointed minister of finance on 27 April 1928, the Coimbra University Law School professor of economics Antônio de Oliveira Salazar (1889-1970) first reformed finance, helped balance the budget, and then turned to other concerns as he garnered extraordinary governing powers. In 1930, he was appointed interim head of another key ministry (Colonies) and within a few years had become, in effect, a civilian dictator who, with the military hierarchy's support, provided the government with coherence, a program, and a set of policies.
       For nearly 40 years after he was appointed the first civilian prime minister in 1932, Salazar's personality dominated the government. Unlike extreme right-wing dictators elsewhere in Europe, Salazar was directly appointed by the army but was never endorsed by a popular political party, street militia, or voter base. The scholarly, reclusive former Coimbra University professor built up what became known after 1932 as the Estado Novo ("New State"), which at the time of its overthrow by another military coup in 1974, was the longest surviving authoritarian regime in Western Europe. The system of Salazar and the largely academic and technocratic ruling group he gathered in his cabinets was based on the central bureaucracy of the state, which was supported by the president of the republic—always a senior career military officer, General Óscar Carmona (1928-51), General Craveiro Lopes (1951-58), and Admiral Américo Tómaz (1958-74)—and the complicity of various institutions. These included a rubber-stamp legislature called the National Assembly (1935-74) and a political police known under various names: PVDE (1932-45), PIDE (1945-69),
       and DGS (1969-74). Other defenders of the Estado Novo security were paramilitary organizations such as the National Republican Guard (GNR); the Portuguese Legion (PL); and the Portuguese Youth [Movement]. In addition to censorship of the media, theater, and books, there was political repression and a deliberate policy of depoliticization. All political parties except for the approved movement of regime loyalists, the União Nacional or (National Union), were banned.
       The most vigorous and more popular period of the New State was 1932-44, when the basic structures were established. Never monolithic or entirely the work of one person (Salazar), the New State was constructed with the assistance of several dozen top associates who were mainly academics from law schools, some technocrats with specialized skills, and a handful of trusted career military officers. The 1933 Constitution declared Portugal to be a "unitary, corporative Republic," and pressures to restore the monarchy were resisted. Although some of the regime's followers were fascists and pseudofascists, many more were conservative Catholics, integralists, nationalists, and monarchists of different varieties, and even some reactionary republicans. If the New State was authoritarian, it was not totalitarian and, unlike fascism in Benito Mussolini's Italy or Adolf Hitler's Germany, it usually employed the minimum of violence necessary to defeat what remained a largely fractious, incoherent opposition.
       With the tumultuous Second Republic and the subsequent civil war in nearby Spain, the regime felt threatened and reinforced its defenses. During what Salazar rightly perceived as a time of foreign policy crisis for Portugal (1936-45), he assumed control of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. From there, he pursued four basic foreign policy objectives: supporting the Nationalist rebels of General Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War (1936-39) and concluding defense treaties with a triumphant Franco; ensuring that General Franco in an exhausted Spain did not enter World War II on the Axis side; maintaining Portuguese neutrality in World War II with a post-1942 tilt toward the Allies, including granting Britain and the United States use of bases in the Azores Islands; and preserving and protecting Portugal's Atlantic Islands and its extensive, if poor, overseas empire in Africa and Asia.
       During the middle years of the New State (1944-58), many key Salazar associates in government either died or resigned, and there was greater social unrest in the form of unprecedented strikes and clandestine Communist activities, intensified opposition, and new threatening international pressures on Portugal's overseas empire. During the earlier phase of the Cold War (1947-60), Portugal became a steadfast, if weak, member of the US-dominated North Atlantic Treaty Organization alliance and, in 1955, with American support, Portugal joined the United Nations (UN). Colonial affairs remained a central concern of the regime. As of 1939, Portugal was the third largest colonial power in the world and possessed territories in tropical Africa (Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, and São Tomé and Príncipe Islands) and the remnants of its 16th-century empire in Asia (Goa, Damão, Diu, East Timor, and Macau). Beginning in the early 1950s, following the independence of India in 1947, Portugal resisted Indian pressures to decolonize Portuguese India and used police forces to discourage internal opposition in its Asian and African colonies.
       The later years of the New State (1958-68) witnessed the aging of the increasingly isolated but feared Salazar and new threats both at home and overseas. Although the regime easily overcame the brief oppositionist threat from rival presidential candidate General Humberto Delgado in the spring of 1958, new developments in the African and Asian empires imperiled the authoritarian system. In February 1961, oppositionists hijacked the Portuguese ocean liner Santa Maria and, in following weeks, African insurgents in northern Angola, although they failed to expel the Portuguese, gained worldwide media attention, discredited the New State, and began the 13-year colonial war. After thwarting a dissident military coup against his continued leadership, Salazar and his ruling group mobilized military repression in Angola and attempted to develop the African colonies at a faster pace in order to ensure Portuguese control. Meanwhile, the other European colonial powers (Britain, France, Belgium, and Spain) rapidly granted political independence to their African territories.
       At the time of Salazar's removal from power in September 1968, following a stroke, Portugal's efforts to maintain control over its colonies appeared to be successful. President Americo Tomás appointed Dr. Marcello Caetano as Salazar's successor as prime minister. While maintaining the New State's basic structures, and continuing the regime's essential colonial policy, Caetano attempted wider reforms in colonial administration and some devolution of power from Lisbon, as well as more freedom of expression in Lisbon. Still, a great deal of the budget was devoted to supporting the wars against the insurgencies in Africa. Meanwhile in Asia, Portuguese India had fallen when the Indian army invaded in December 1961. The loss of Goa was a psychological blow to the leadership of the New State, and of the Asian empire only East Timor and Macau remained.
       The Caetano years (1968-74) were but a hiatus between the waning Salazar era and a new regime. There was greater political freedom and rapid economic growth (5-6 percent annually to late 1973), but Caetano's government was unable to reform the old system thoroughly and refused to consider new methods either at home or in the empire. In the end, regime change came from junior officers of the professional military who organized the Armed Forces Movement (MFA) against the Caetano government. It was this group of several hundred officers, mainly in the army and navy, which engineered a largely bloodless coup in Lisbon on 25 April 1974. Their unexpected action brought down the 48-year-old New State and made possible the eventual establishment and consolidation of democratic governance in Portugal, as well as a reorientation of the country away from the Atlantic toward Europe.
       Revolution of Carnations, 1974-76
       Following successful military operations of the Armed Forces Movement against the Caetano government, Portugal experienced what became known as the "Revolution of Carnations." It so happened that during the rainy week of the military golpe, Lisbon flower shops were featuring carnations, and the revolutionaries and their supporters adopted the red carnation as the common symbol of the event, as well as of the new freedom from dictatorship. The MFA, whose leaders at first were mostly little-known majors and captains, proclaimed a three-fold program of change for the new Portugal: democracy; decolonization of the overseas empire, after ending the colonial wars; and developing a backward economy in the spirit of opportunity and equality. During the first 24 months after the coup, there was civil strife, some anarchy, and a power struggle. With the passing of the Estado Novo, public euphoria burst forth as the new provisional military government proclaimed the freedoms of speech, press, and assembly, and abolished censorship, the political police, the Portuguese Legion, Portuguese Youth, and other New State organizations, including the National Union. Scores of political parties were born and joined the senior political party, the Portuguese Community Party (PCP), and the Socialist Party (PS), founded shortly before the coup.
       Portugal's Revolution of Carnations went through several phases. There was an attempt to take control by radical leftists, including the PCP and its allies. This was thwarted by moderate officers in the army, as well as by the efforts of two political parties: the PS and the Social Democrats (PPD, later PSD). The first phase was from April to September 1974. Provisional president General Antonio Spínola, whose 1974 book Portugal and the Future had helped prepare public opinion for the coup, met irresistible leftist pressures. After Spinola's efforts to avoid rapid decolonization of the African empire failed, he resigned in September 1974. During the second phase, from September 1974 to March 1975, radical military officers gained control, but a coup attempt by General Spínola and his supporters in Lisbon in March 1975 failed and Spínola fled to Spain.
       In the third phase of the Revolution, March-November 1975, a strong leftist reaction followed. Farm workers occupied and "nationalized" 1.1 million hectares of farmland in the Alentejo province, and radical military officers in the provisional government ordered the nationalization of Portuguese banks (foreign banks were exempted), utilities, and major industries, or about 60 percent of the economic system. There were power struggles among various political parties — a total of 50 emerged—and in the streets there was civil strife among labor, military, and law enforcement groups. A constituent assembly, elected on 25 April 1975, in Portugal's first free elections since 1926, drafted a democratic constitution. The Council of the Revolution (CR), briefly a revolutionary military watchdog committee, was entrenched as part of the government under the constitution, until a later revision. During the chaotic year of 1975, about 30 persons were killed in political frays while unstable provisional governments came and went. On 25 November 1975, moderate military forces led by Colonel Ramalho Eanes, who later was twice elected president of the republic (1976 and 1981), defeated radical, leftist military groups' revolutionary conspiracies.
       In the meantime, Portugal's scattered overseas empire experienced a precipitous and unprepared decolonization. One by one, the former colonies were granted and accepted independence—Guinea-Bissau (September 1974), Cape Verde Islands (July 1975), and Mozambique (July 1975). Portugal offered to turn over Macau to the People's Republic of China, but the offer was refused then and later negotiations led to the establishment of a formal decolonization or hand-over date of 1999. But in two former colonies, the process of decolonization had tragic results.
       In Angola, decolonization negotiations were greatly complicated by the fact that there were three rival nationalist movements in a struggle for power. The January 1975 Alvor Agreement signed by Portugal and these three parties was not effectively implemented. A bloody civil war broke out in Angola in the spring of 1975 and, when Portuguese armed forces withdrew and declared that Angola was independent on 11 November 1975, the bloodshed only increased. Meanwhile, most of the white Portuguese settlers from Angola and Mozambique fled during the course of 1975. Together with African refugees, more than 600,000 of these retornados ("returned ones") went by ship and air to Portugal and thousands more to Namibia, South Africa, Brazil, Canada, and the United States.
       The second major decolonization disaster was in Portugal's colony of East Timor in the Indonesian archipelago. Portugal's capacity to supervise and control a peaceful transition to independence in this isolated, neglected colony was limited by the strength of giant Indonesia, distance from Lisbon, and Portugal's revolutionary disorder and inability to defend Timor. In early December 1975, before Portugal granted formal independence and as one party, FRETILIN, unilaterally declared East Timor's independence, Indonesia's armed forces invaded, conquered, and annexed East Timor. Indonesian occupation encountered East Timorese resistance, and a heavy loss of life followed. The East Timor question remained a contentious international issue in the UN, as well as in Lisbon and Jakarta, for more than 20 years following Indonesia's invasion and annexation of the former colony of Portugal. Major changes occurred, beginning in 1998, after Indonesia underwent a political revolution and allowed a referendum in East Timor to decide that territory's political future in August 1999. Most East Timorese chose independence, but Indonesian forces resisted that verdict until
       UN intervention in September 1999. Following UN rule for several years, East Timor attained full independence on 20 May 2002.
       Consolidation of Democracy, 1976-2000
       After several free elections and record voter turnouts between 25 April 1975 and June 1976, civil war was averted and Portugal's second democratic republic began to stabilize. The MFA was dissolved, the military were returned to the barracks, and increasingly elected civilians took over the government of the country. The 1976 Constitution was revised several times beginning in 1982 and 1989, in order to reempha-size the principle of free enterprise in the economy while much of the large, nationalized sector was privatized. In June 1976, General Ram-alho Eanes was elected the first constitutional president of the republic (five-year term), and he appointed socialist leader Dr. Mário Soares as prime minister of the first constitutional government.
       From 1976 to 1985, Portugal's new system featured a weak economy and finances, labor unrest, and administrative and political instability. The difficult consolidation of democratic governance was eased in part by the strong currency and gold reserves inherited from the Estado Novo, but Lisbon seemed unable to cope with high unemployment, new debt, the complex impact of the refugees from Africa, world recession, and the agitation of political parties. Four major parties emerged from the maelstrom of 1974-75, except for the Communist Party, all newly founded. They were, from left to right, the Communists (PCP); the Socialists (PS), who managed to dominate governments and the legislature but not win a majority in the Assembly of the Republic; the Social Democrats (PSD); and the Christian Democrats (CDS). During this period, the annual growth rate was low (l-2 percent), and the nationalized sector of the economy stagnated.
       Enhanced economic growth, greater political stability, and more effective central government as of 1985, and especially 1987, were due to several developments. In 1977, Portugal applied for membership in the European Economic Community (EEC), now the European Union (EU) since 1993. In January 1986, with Spain, Portugal was granted membership, and economic and financial progress in the intervening years has been significantly influenced by the comparatively large investment, loans, technology, advice, and other assistance from the EEC. Low unemployment, high annual growth rates (5 percent), and moderate inflation have also been induced by the new political and administrative stability in Lisbon. Led by Prime Minister Cavaco Silva, an economist who was trained abroad, the PSD's strong organization, management, and electoral support since 1985 have assisted in encouraging economic recovery and development. In 1985, the PSD turned the PS out of office and won the general election, although they did not have an absolute majority of assembly seats. In 1986, Mário Soares was elected president of the republic, the first civilian to hold that office since the First Republic. In the elections of 1987 and 1991, however, the PSD was returned to power with clear majorities of over 50 percent of the vote.
       Although the PSD received 50.4 percent of the vote in the 1991 parliamentary elections and held a 42-seat majority in the Assembly of the Republic, the party began to lose public support following media revelations regarding corruption and complaints about Prime Minister Cavaco Silva's perceived arrogant leadership style. President Mário Soares voiced criticism of the PSD's seemingly untouchable majority and described a "tyranny of the majority." Economic growth slowed down. In the parliamentary elections of 1995 and the presidential election of 1996, the PSD's dominance ended for the time being. Prime Minister Antônio Guterres came to office when the PS won the October 1995 elections, and in the subsequent presidential contest, in January 1996, socialist Jorge Sampaio, the former mayor of Lisbon, was elected president of the republic, thus defeating Cavaco Silva's bid. Young and popular, Guterres moved the PS toward the center of the political spectrum. Under Guterres, the PS won the October 1999 parliamentary elections. The PS defeated the PSD but did not manage to win a clear, working majority of seats, and this made the PS dependent upon alliances with smaller parties, including the PCP.
       In the local elections in December 2001, the PSD's criticism of PS's heavy public spending allowed the PSD to take control of the key cities of Lisbon, Oporto, and Coimbra. Guterres resigned, and parliamentary elections were brought forward from 2004 to March 2002. The PSD won a narrow victory with 40 percent of the votes, and Jose Durão Barroso became prime minister. Having failed to win a majority of the seats in parliament forced the PSD to govern in coalition with the right-wing Popular Party (PP) led by Paulo Portas. Durão Barroso set about reducing government spending by cutting the budgets of local authorities, freezing civil service hiring, and reviving the economy by accelerating privatization of state-owned enterprises. These measures provoked a 24-hour strike by public-sector workers. Durão Barroso reacted with vows to press ahead with budget-cutting measures and imposed a wage freeze on all employees earning more than €1,000, which affected more than one-half of Portugal's work force.
       In June 2004, Durão Barroso was invited by Romano Prodi to succeed him as president of the European Commission. Durão Barroso accepted and resigned the prime ministership in July. Pedro Santana Lopes, the leader of the PSD, became prime minister. Already unpopular at the time of Durão Barroso's resignation, the PSD-led government became increasingly unpopular under Santana Lopes. A month-long delay in the start of the school year and confusion over his plan to cut taxes and raise public-sector salaries, eroded confidence even more. By November, Santana Lopes's government was so unpopular that President Jorge Sampaio was obliged to dissolve parliament and hold new elections, two years ahead of schedule.
       Parliamentary elections were held on 20 February 2005. The PS, which had promised the electorate disciplined and transparent governance, educational reform, the alleviation of poverty, and a boost in employment, won 45 percent of the vote and the majority of the seats in parliament. The leader of the PS, José Sôcrates became prime minister on 12 March 2005. In the regularly scheduled presidential elections held on 6 January 2006, the former leader of the PSD and prime minister, Aníbal Cavaco Silva, won a narrow victory and became president on 9 March 2006. With a mass protest, public teachers' strike, and street demonstrations in March 2008, Portugal's media, educational, and social systems experienced more severe pressures. With the spreading global recession beginning in September 2008, Portugal's economic and financial systems became more troubled.
       Owing to its geographic location on the southwestern most edge of continental Europe, Portugal has been historically in but not of Europe. Almost from the beginning of its existence in the 12th century as an independent monarchy, Portugal turned its back on Europe and oriented itself toward the Atlantic Ocean. After carving out a Christian kingdom on the western portion of the Iberian peninsula, Portuguese kings gradually built and maintained a vast seaborne global empire that became central to the way Portugal understood its individuality as a nation-state. While the creation of this empire allows Portugal to claim an unusual number of "firsts" or distinctions in world and Western history, it also retarded Portugal's economic, social, and political development. It can be reasonably argued that the Revolution of 25 April 1974 was the most decisive event in Portugal's long history because it finally ended Portugal's oceanic mission and view of itself as an imperial power. After the 1974 Revolution, Portugal turned away from its global mission and vigorously reoriented itself toward Europe. Contemporary Portugal is now both in and of Europe.
       The turn toward Europe began immediately after 25 April 1974. Portugal granted independence to its African colonies in 1975. It was admitted to the European Council and took the first steps toward accession to the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1976. On 28 March 1977, the Portuguese government officially applied for EEC membership. Because of Portugal's economic and social backwardness, which would require vast sums of EEC money to overcome, negotiations for membership were long and difficult. Finally, a treaty of accession was signed on 12 June 1985. Portugal officially joined the EEC (the European Union [EU] since 1993) on 1 January 1986. Since becoming a full-fledged member of the EU, Portugal has been steadily overcoming the economic and social underdevelopment caused by its imperial past and is becoming more like the rest of Europe.
       Membership in the EU has speeded up the structural transformation of Portugal's economy, which actually began during the Estado Novo. Investments made by the Estado Novo in Portugal's economy began to shift employment out of the agricultural sector, which, in 1950, accounted for 50 percent of Portugal's economically active population. Today, only 10 percent of the economically active population is employed in the agricultural sector (the highest among EU member states); 30 percent in the industrial sector (also the highest among EU member states); and 60 percent in the service sector (the lowest among EU member states). The economically active population numbers about 5,000,000 employed, 56 percent of whom are women. Women workers are the majority of the workforce in the agricultural and service sectors (the highest among the EU member states). The expansion of the service sector has been primarily in health care and education. Portugal has had the lowest unemployment rates among EU member states, with the overall rate never being more than 10 percent of the active population. Since joining the EU, the number of employers increased from 2.6 percent to 5.8 percent of the active population; self-employed from 16 to 19 percent; and employees from 65 to 70 percent. Twenty-six percent of the employers are women. Unemployment tends to hit younger workers in industry and transportation, women employed in domestic service, workers on short-term contracts, and poorly educated workers. Salaried workers earn only 63 percent of the EU average, and hourly workers only one-third to one-half of that earned by their EU counterparts. Despite having had the second highest growth of gross national product (GNP) per inhabitant (after Ireland) among EU member states, the above data suggest that while much has been accomplished in terms of modernizing the Portuguese economy, much remains to be done to bring Portugal's economy up to the level of the "average" EU member state.
       Membership in the EU has also speeded up changes in Portuguese society. Over the last 30 years, coastalization and urbanization have intensified. Fully 50 percent of Portuguese live in the coastal urban conurbations of Lisbon, Oporto, Braga, Aveiro, Coimbra, Viseu, Évora, and Faro. The Portuguese population is one of the oldest among EU member states (17.3 percent are 65 years of age or older) thanks to a considerable increase in life expectancy at birth (77.87 years for the total population, 74.6 years for men, 81.36 years for women) and one of the lowest birthrates (10.59 births/1,000) in Europe. Family size averages 2.8 persons per household, with the strict nuclear family (one or two generations) in which both parents work being typical. Common law marriages, cohabitating couples, and single-parent households are more and more common. The divorce rate has also increased. "Youth Culture" has developed. The young have their own meeting places, leisure-time activities, and nightlife (bars, clubs, and discos).
       All Portuguese citizens, whether they have contributed or not, have a right to an old-age pension, invalidity benefits, widowed persons' pension, as well as payments for disabilities, children, unemployment, and large families. There is a national minimum wage (€385 per month), which is low by EU standards. The rapid aging of Portugal's population has changed the ratio of contributors to pensioners to 1.7, the lowest in the EU. This has created deficits in Portugal's social security fund.
       The adult literacy rate is about 92 percent. Illiteracy is still found among the elderly. Although universal compulsory education up to grade 9 was achieved in 1980, only 21.2 percent of the population aged 25-64 had undergone secondary education, compared to an EU average of 65.7 percent. Portugal's higher education system currently consists of 14 state universities and 14 private universities, 15 state polytechnic institutions, one Catholic university, and one military academy. All in all, Portugal spends a greater percentage of its state budget on education than most EU member states. Despite this high level of expenditure, the troubled Portuguese education system does not perform well. Early leaving and repetition rates are among the highest among EU member states.
       After the Revolution of 25 April 1974, Portugal created a National Health Service, which today consists of 221 hospitals and 512 medical centers employing 33,751 doctors and 41,799 nurses. Like its education system, Portugal's medical system is inefficient. There are long waiting lists for appointments with specialists and for surgical procedures.
       Structural changes in Portugal's economy and society mean that social life in Portugal is not too different from that in other EU member states. A mass consumption society has been created. Televisions, telephones, refrigerators, cars, music equipment, mobile phones, and personal computers are commonplace. Sixty percent of Portuguese households possess at least one automobile, and 65 percent of Portuguese own their own home. Portuguese citizens are more aware of their legal rights than ever before. This has resulted in a trebling of the number of legal proceeding since 1960 and an eight-fold increase in the number of lawyers. In general, Portuguese society has become more permissive and secular; the Catholic Church and the armed forces are much less influential than in the past. Portugal's population is also much more culturally, religiously, and ethnically diverse, a consequence of the coming to Portugal of hundreds of thousands of immigrants, mainly from former African colonies.
       Portuguese are becoming more cosmopolitan and sophisticated through the impact of world media, the Internet, and the World Wide Web. A prime case in point came in the summer and early fall of 1999, with the extraordinary events in East Timor and the massive Portuguese popular responses. An internationally monitored referendum in East Timor, Portugal's former colony in the Indonesian archipelago and under Indonesian occupation from late 1975 to summer 1999, resulted in a vote of 78.5 percent for rejecting integration with Indonesia and for independence. When Indonesian prointegration gangs, aided by the Indonesian military, responded to the referendum with widespread brutality and threatened to reverse the verdict of the referendum, there was a spontaneous popular outpouring of protest in the cities and towns of Portugal. An avalanche of Portuguese e-mail fell on leaders and groups in the UN and in certain countries around the world as Portugal's diplomats, perhaps to compensate for the weak initial response to Indonesian armed aggression in 1975, called for the protection of East Timor as an independent state and for UN intervention to thwart Indonesian action. Using global communications networks, the Portuguese were able to mobilize UN and world public opinion against Indonesian actions and aided the eventual independence of East Timor on 20 May 2002.
       From the Revolution of 25 April 1974 until the 1990s, Portugal had a large number of political parties, one of the largest Communist parties in western Europe, frequent elections, and endemic cabinet instability. Since the 1990s, the number of political parties has been dramatically reduced and cabinet stability increased. Gradually, the Portuguese electorate has concentrated around two larger parties, the right-of-center Social Democrats (PSD) and the left-of-center Socialist (PS). In the 1980s, these two parties together garnered 65 percent of the vote and 70 percent of the seats in parliament. In 2005, these percentages had risen to 74 percent and 85 percent, respectively. In effect, Portugal is currently a two-party dominant system in which the two largest parties — PS and PSD—alternate in and out of power, not unlike the rotation of the two main political parties (the Regenerators and the Historicals) during the last decades (1850s to 1880s) of the liberal constitutional monarchy. As Portugal's democracy has consolidated, turnout rates for the eligible electorate have declined. In the 1970s, turnout was 85 percent. In Portugal's most recent parliamentary election (2005), turnout had fallen to 65 percent of the eligible electorate.
       Portugal has benefited greatly from membership in the EU, and whatever doubts remain about the price paid for membership, no Portuguese government in the near future can afford to sever this connection. The vast majority of Portuguese citizens see membership in the EU as a "good thing" and strongly believe that Portugal has benefited from membership. Only the Communist Party opposed membership because it reduces national sovereignty, serves the interests of capitalists not workers, and suffers from a democratic deficit. Despite the high level of support for the EU, Portuguese voters are increasingly not voting in elections for the European Parliament, however. Turnout for European Parliament elections fell from 40 percent of the eligible electorate in the 1999 elections to 38 percent in the 2004 elections.
       In sum, Portugal's turn toward Europe has done much to overcome its backwardness. However, despite the economic, social, and political progress made since 1986, Portugal has a long way to go before it can claim to be on a par with the level found even in Spain, much less the rest of western Europe. As Portugal struggles to move from underde-velopment, especially in the rural areas away from the coast, it must keep in mind the perils of too rapid modern development, which could damage two of its most precious assets: its scenery and environment. The growth and future prosperity of the economy will depend on the degree to which the government and the private sector will remain stewards of clean air, soil, water, and other finite resources on which the tourism industry depends and on which Portugal's world image as a unique place to visit rests. Currently, Portugal is investing heavily in renewable energy from solar, wind, and wave power in order to account for about 50 percent of its electricity needs by 2010. Portugal opened the world's largest solar power plant and the world's first commercial wave power farm in 2006.
       An American documentary film on Portugal produced in the 1970s described this little country as having "a Past in Search of a Future." In the years after the Revolution of 25 April 1974, it could be said that Portugal is now living in "a Present in Search of a Future." Increasingly, that future lies in Europe as an active and productive member of the EU.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Historical Portugal

  • 9 crown

    [kraʊn] n
    1) ( of a monarch) Krone f;
    \crown of thorns Dornenkrone f;
    to wear the [or one's] \crown die Krone tragen
    2) the C\crown ( monarchy) die Krone;
    ( monarch) der König/die Königin
    3) ( sporting title) Meisterschaftstitel m
    4) ( top of head) Scheitel m; ( of hill) Kuppe f; ( of mountain) Gipfel m; ( of a roof) [Dach]first m; (of a tooth, tree, hat) Krone f
    5) ( Brit) (hist: coin) Krone f, Fünfschillingstück nt vt
    to \crown sb jdn krönen
    to \crown sb world champion jdn zum Weltmeister krönen;
    she's the newly \crowned world champion sie ist die frischgebackene Weltmeisterin
    to \crown sth etw krönen [o glanzvoll abrunden];
    4) (liter: top)
    to \crown sth etw krönen
    5) (fam: hit on head)
    to \crown sb jdm eins überziehen [o aufs Dach geben] ( fam)
    6) med
    to \crown teeth Zähne überkronen
    PHRASES:
    to \crown it all (Brit, Aus) ( iron) als [o zur] Krönung des Ganzen ( iron)

    English-German students dictionary > crown

  • 10 create

    1. transitive verb
    1) schaffen; erschaffen (geh.); verursachen [Verwirrung]; machen [Eindruck]; [Sache:] mit sich bringen, [Person:] machen [Schwierigkeiten]
    2) (design) schaffen; kreieren [Mode, Stil]
    3) (invest with rank) ernennen
    2. intransitive verb
    (Brit. coll.): (make a fuss) Theater machen (ugs.)
    * * *
    [kri'eit]
    1) (to cause to exist; to make: How was the earth created?; The circus created great excitement.) (er-)schaffen
    2) (to give (a rank etc to): Sir John was created a knight in 1958.) ernennen zu
    •
    - academic.ru/17102/creation">creation
    - creative
    - creatively
    - creativeness
    - creativity
    - creator
    - the Creator
    * * *
    cre·ate
    [kriˈeɪt]
    I. vt
    ▪ to \create sth etw erschaffen [o geh kreieren]
    who \created the world? wer hat die Welt erschaffen?
    ▪ to \create sth etw erzeugen [o produzieren]
    unemployment \creates many social problems durch die Arbeitslosigkeit entstehen viele soziale Probleme
    to \create confusion Unruhe stiften
    to \create an impression einen Eindruck erwecken
    to \create a precedent einen Präzedenzfall schaffen
    to \create a sensation Aufsehen erregen
    he was \createed first Earl of Cheshunt er wurde zum ersten Earl von Cheshunt ernannt
    II. vi BRIT, AUS ( fam) eine Szene machen fam
    * * *
    [kriː'eɪt]
    1. vt
    1) (= bring into existence) schaffen; new style, fashion also kreieren; the world, man erschaffen; draught, noise, fuss verursachen; difficulties machen; problems (person) schaffen; (action, event) verursachen, hervorbringen; impression machen; (COMPUT) file anlegen, erstellen
    2) (= appoint) peer ernennen

    peers can only be created by the reigning monarch —

    2. vi (Brit inf)
    Theater machen (inf)
    * * *
    create [kriːˈeıt; krı-] v/t
    1. (er)schaffen:
    2. schaffen, ins Leben rufen, hervorbringen, erzeugen:
    create jobs Arbeitsplätze schaffen
    3. einen Skandal etc hervorrufen, verursachen:
    create a demand einen Bedarf wecken;
    create an impression einen Eindruck machen;
    create an opportunity (a situation) eine Gelegenheit (eine Lage) schaffen;
    create a scoring chance SPORT eine Torchance herausspielen
    4. WIRTSCH, JUR
    a) eine Gesellschaft gründen, errichten, ins Leben rufen
    b) eine Haftung etc begründen
    c) eine Hypothek bestellen
    d) Geld, Kredit schöpfen
    5. THEAT etc, Mode: kreieren
    6. jemanden ernennen:
    7. jemanden erheben zu, machen zu:
    * * *
    1. transitive verb
    1) schaffen; erschaffen (geh.); verursachen [Verwirrung]; machen [Eindruck]; [Sache:] mit sich bringen, [Person:] machen [Schwierigkeiten]
    2) (design) schaffen; kreieren [Mode, Stil]
    3) (invest with rank) ernennen
    2. intransitive verb
    (Brit. coll.): (make a fuss) Theater machen (ugs.)
    * * *
    v.
    entwerfen v.
    erschaffen v.
    erstellen v.
    erzeugen v.
    hervorbringen v.
    kreieren v.
    schaffen v.

    English-german dictionary > create

  • 11 serve

    sə:v
    1. verb
    1) (to work for a person etc eg as a servant: He served his master for forty years.) servir
    2) (to distribute food etc or supply goods: She served the soup to the guests; Which shop assistant served you (with these goods)?) servir
    3) (to be suitable for a purpose: This upturned bucket will serve as a seat.) servir (de)
    4) (to perform duties, eg as a member of the armed forces: He served (his country) as a soldier for twenty years; I served on the committee for five years.) servir, prestar servicio
    5) (to undergo (a prison sentence): He served (a sentence of) six years for armed robbery.) cumplir
    6) (in tennis and similar games, to start the play by throwing up the ball etc and hitting it: He served the ball into the net; Is it your turn to serve?) sacar

    2. noun
    (act of serving (a ball).) servicio
    - serving
    - it serves you right
    - serve an apprenticeship
    - serve out
    - serve up
    serve1 n saque
    whose serve is it? ¿a quién le toca sacar?
    serve2 vb
    1. servir
    eat what you want, serve yourselves comed lo que queráis, servíos vosotros mismos
    2. atender
    3. sacar
    tr[sɜːv]
    1 (work for) servir (as, de)
    2 (customer) servir, atender; (food, drink) servir
    ■ are you being served? ¿le atienden?
    ■ dinner is served at 8.00 pm se sirve la cena a les 8.00
    ■ we can't serve alcohol after 11.00 pm no podemos servir alcohol después de las 11.00
    3 (be useful to) servir, ser útil
    4 (provide with service) prestar servicio a
    6 SMALLLAW/SMALL (summons, writ, court order, etc) entregar, hacer entrega de
    ■ he was served with a summons fue citado para comparecer ante del juez, recibió una citación judicial
    7 (tennis) sacar, servir
    1 (work for) servir
    2 (in shop) atender; (food, drink) servir
    ■ who wants to serve? ¿quién quiere servir?
    3 (be useful to) servir (as, de)
    4 (tennis) servir, sacar
    \
    SMALLIDIOMATIC EXPRESSION/SMALL
    if my memory serves me right/well si no me falla la memoria, si mal no recuerdo
    to serve at mass ayudar en misa
    to serve somebody right tenerlo bien merecido alguien
    to serve time cumplir una condena
    serve ['sərv] v, served ; serving vi
    1) : servir
    to serve in the navy: servir en la armada
    to serve on a jury: ser miembro de un jurado
    2) do, function: servir
    to serve as: servir de, servir como
    3) : sacar (en deportes)
    serve vt
    1) : servir
    to serve God: servir a Dios
    2) help: servir
    it serves no purpose: no sirve para nada
    3) : servir (comida o bebida)
    dinner is served: la cena está servida
    4) supply: abastecer
    5) carry out: cumplir, hacer
    to serve time: servir una pena
    6)
    to serve a summons : entregar una citación
    n.
    • servicio (Tenis) (•Deporte•) s.m.
    n.
    • saco s.m.
    • saque s.m.
    • saque en el tenis s.m. (Tennis)
    v.
    • sacar (Tenis) (•Deporte•) v.
    v.
    • abastecer v.
    • asistir v.
    • ayudar v.
    • escanciar v.
    • estar al servicio de v.
    • ser útil a v.
    • servir v.

    I
    1. sɜːrv, sɜːv
    1) ( work for) \<\<God/monarch/party\>\> servir* a
    2) (help, be useful to) servir*

    if (my) memory serves me correctly — si la memoria me es fiel, si la memoria no me falla

    it serves her right! — se lo merece!, lo tiene bien merecido!, le está bien empleado! (Esp)

    3)
    a) ( Culin) \<\<food/drink\>\> servir*

    serves four — ( in recipe) para cuatro personas; ( on packet) cuatro raciones or porciones

    dinner is served — (frml) la cena está servida

    b) ( in shop) (BrE) atender*

    are you being served? — ¿lo atienden?

    4) ( Transp)

    the bus route serving Newtown — el servicio or la línea de autobuses que va a Newtown

    5) ( Law) \<\<summons/notice/order\>\> entregar*, hacer* entrega de

    to serve something on somebody to serve somebody with something: they served a summons on all the directors todos los directivos recibieron una citación judicial; she was served with divorce papers — recibió notificación de la demanda de divorcio

    6) ( complete) \<\<apprenticeship\>\> hacer*; \<\<sentence\>\> cumplir

    2.
    vi
    1)
    a) ( be servant) (liter) servir*
    b) ( in shop) (BrE) atender*
    c) ( distribute food) servir*
    2) (spend time, do duty)

    to serve in the army — servir* en el ejército

    to serve on a committee — integrar una comisión, ser* miembro de una comisión

    3) (have effect, function)

    to serve to + INF — servir* para + inf

    let this serve as a warning — que esto te (or les etc) sirva de advertencia

    4) ( Sport) sacar*, servir*
    •
    Phrasal Verbs:

    II
    noun servicio m, saque m
    [sɜːv]
    1. VT
    1) (=work for) [+ employer, God, country] servir a

    he served his country well — sirvió dignamente a la patria, prestó valiosos servicios a la patria

    2) (=be used for, be useful as) servir

    that serves to explain... — eso sirve para explicar...

    • it serves its/my purpose — viene al caso

    • it serves you right — te lo mereces, te lo tienes merecido, te está bien empleado

    it served him right for being so greedy — se lo mereció por ser tan glotón, le está bien empleado por glotón

    3) (in shop, restaurant) [+ customer] servir, atender; [+ food, meal] servir

    are you being served, madam? — ¿le están atendiendo, señora?

    4) (=complete) cumplir, hacer

    • to serve ten years in the army — servir diez años en el ejército

    • to serve a prison sentence, serve time (in prison) — cumplir una condena or una pena de cárcel

    5) (Jur) [+ writ, summons] entregar
    6) (Travel)
    7) (Culin) (=be enough for)
    8) (Tennis etc)

    to serve the ball — servir (la bola), sacar

    2. VI
    1) [servant, soldier] servir

    to serve on a committee/jury — ser miembro de una comisión/un jurado

    2) (at mealtime) servir

    shall I serve? — ¿sirvo?

    3) (in shop) atender
    4) (=be useful)

    to serve for or as — servir de

    it serves to show that... — sirve para demostrar que...

    5) (Tennis) sacar
    3.
    N (Tennis etc) servicio m, saque m

    whose serve is it? — ¿quién saca?, ¿de quién es el servicio?

    he has a strong serve — tiene un servicio or saque muy fuerte

    * * *

    I
    1. [sɜːrv, sɜːv]
    1) ( work for) \<\<God/monarch/party\>\> servir* a
    2) (help, be useful to) servir*

    if (my) memory serves me correctly — si la memoria me es fiel, si la memoria no me falla

    it serves her right! — se lo merece!, lo tiene bien merecido!, le está bien empleado! (Esp)

    3)
    a) ( Culin) \<\<food/drink\>\> servir*

    serves four — ( in recipe) para cuatro personas; ( on packet) cuatro raciones or porciones

    dinner is served — (frml) la cena está servida

    b) ( in shop) (BrE) atender*

    are you being served? — ¿lo atienden?

    4) ( Transp)

    the bus route serving Newtown — el servicio or la línea de autobuses que va a Newtown

    5) ( Law) \<\<summons/notice/order\>\> entregar*, hacer* entrega de

    to serve something on somebody to serve somebody with something: they served a summons on all the directors todos los directivos recibieron una citación judicial; she was served with divorce papers — recibió notificación de la demanda de divorcio

    6) ( complete) \<\<apprenticeship\>\> hacer*; \<\<sentence\>\> cumplir

    2.
    vi
    1)
    a) ( be servant) (liter) servir*
    b) ( in shop) (BrE) atender*
    c) ( distribute food) servir*
    2) (spend time, do duty)

    to serve in the army — servir* en el ejército

    to serve on a committee — integrar una comisión, ser* miembro de una comisión

    3) (have effect, function)

    to serve to + INF — servir* para + inf

    let this serve as a warning — que esto te (or les etc) sirva de advertencia

    4) ( Sport) sacar*, servir*
    •
    Phrasal Verbs:

    II
    noun servicio m, saque m

    English-spanish dictionary > serve

  • 12 crown

    I [kraʊn]
    1) (of monarch) corona f.
    2) (top) (of hill) cima f., sommità f.; (of hat) cupola f., cocuzzolo m.
    3) (head) testa f., cranio m.
    4) med. corona f., capsula f.
    5) GB stor. (old coin) corona f.
    II [kraʊn]
    1) incoronare [queen, champion]

    to crown sb. emperor — incoronare qcn. imperatore

    3) med. incapsulare [ tooth]
    * * *
    1. noun
    1) (a circular, often jewelled, head-dress, especially one worn as a mark of royalty or honour: the queen's crown.) corona
    2) ((with capital) the king or queen or governing power in a monarchy: revenue belonging to the Crown.) Corona
    3) (the top eg of a head, hat, hill etc: We reached the crown of the hill.) cima
    4) ((an artificial replacement for) the part of a tooth which can be seen.) corona
    2. verb
    1) (to make (someone) king or queen by placing a crown on his or her head: The archbishop crowned the queen.) incoronare
    2) (to form the top part of (something): an iced cake crowned with a cherry.) completare
    3) (to put an artificial crown on (a tooth).) incapsulare, mettere una corona
    4) (to hit (someone) on the head: If you do that again, I'll crown you!) colpire
    •
    - crown princess
    * * *
    I [kraʊn]
    1) (of monarch) corona f.
    2) (top) (of hill) cima f., sommità f.; (of hat) cupola f., cocuzzolo m.
    3) (head) testa f., cranio m.
    4) med. corona f., capsula f.
    5) GB stor. (old coin) corona f.
    II [kraʊn]
    1) incoronare [queen, champion]

    to crown sb. emperor — incoronare qcn. imperatore

    3) med. incapsulare [ tooth]

    English-Italian dictionary > crown

  • 13 rule

    rule [ru:l]
    1. noun
       a. ( = guiding principle) règle f
    • it's a rule that... il est de règle que... + subj
       b. ( = authority) autorité f
       a. [+ country] gouverner ; [+ person] dominer
       b. [judge, umpire] décider ( that que)
       a. ( = reign) régner ( over sur)
       b. [judge] statuer
    [+ possibility, suggestion, date, person] écarter
    * * *
    [ruːl] 1.
    1) ( regulation) (of game, language) règle f; (of school, organization) règlement m

    the rules of the game — les règles or la règle du jeu

    against the rules — contraire aux règles or au règlement ( to do de faire)

    it is a rule that — il est de règle que (+ subj)

    2) ( usual occurrence) règle f
    3) [U] ( authority) domination f, gouvernement m
    4) ( for measuring) règle f
    2.
    1) Politics [ruler, law] gouverner; [monarch] régner sur; [party] diriger; [army] commander
    2) ( control) [person, money, consideration] diriger [behaviour, life]; [factor] dicter [strategy]
    3) ( draw) faire, tirer [line]
    4) [court, umpire]
    3.
    1) [monarch, anarchy] régner
    2) [court, umpire] statuer
    •
    Phrasal Verbs:

    English-French dictionary > rule

  • 14 rule

    A n
    1 ( regulation) (of game, sport, language, religion) règle f ; (of school, company, organization) règlement m ; the rules of the game lit, fig les règles or la règle du jeu ; school/EC rules le règlement de l'école/de la CEE ; to obey/break/bend the rules obéir à/violer/contourner les règles or le règlement ; to be against the rules être contraire aux règles or au règlement (to do de faire) ; it is a rule that il est de règle que ; under this rule selon cette règle or le règlement ; rules and regulations réglementation f ; I make it a rule always/never to do j'ai pour règle de toujours/de ne jamais faire ;
    2 ( usual occurrence) règle f ; hot summers are the rule here les étés chauds sont la règle ici ; as a rule généralement ; as a general rule en règle générale ;
    3 ¢ ( authority) domination f, gouvernement m ; colonial rule domination coloniale ; majority rule gouvernement majoritaire ; under Tory rule sous un gouvernement conservateur ; under the rule of a tyrant sous la domination d'un tyran ;
    4 ( for measuring) règle f ; a metre rule une règle d'un mètre.
    B vtr
    1 Pol [ruler, law, convention] gouverner ; [monarch] régner sur ; [party] diriger ; [army] commander ;
    2 ( control) [money, appetite] dominer [life, character] ; [person, consideration] diriger [behaviour] ; [factor] dicter [strategy] ; to be ruled by sb† se laisser diriger par qn ; to let one's heart rule one's head laisser son cœur dominer sa raison ;
    3 ( draw) faire, tirer [line] ; ruled paper papier réglé ;
    4 [tribunal, court, judge, umpire] to rule that décréter que ; to rule sth unlawful décréter que qch est illégal.
    C vi
    1 gen, Pol [monarch] régner ; [government] gouverner ; anarchy rules l'anarchie règne ; Leeds United rule OK ○ ! vive Leeds United! ;
    2 [tribunal, court, judge, umpire] statuer (against contre).
    ■ rule off:
    ▶ rule off faire or tirer un trait ;
    ▶ rule off [sth], rule [sth] off faire or tirer un trait sous [part of writing].
    ■ rule out:
    ▶ rule out [sth], rule [sth] out
    1 ( eliminate) exclure [chance, possibility, candidate] (of de) ; to rule out doing exclure de faire ;
    2 ( prevent) interdire [activity].

    Big English-French dictionary > rule

  • 15 near cash

    !
    гос. фин. The resource budget contains a separate control total for “near cash” expenditure, that is expenditure such as pay and current grants which impacts directly on the measure of the golden rule.
    This paper provides background information on the framework for the planning and control of public expenditure in the UK which has been operated since the 1998 Comprehensive Spending Review (CSR). It sets out the different classifications of spending for budgeting purposes and why these distinctions have been adopted. It discusses how the public expenditure framework is designed to ensure both sound public finances and an outcome-focused approach to public expenditure.
    The UK's public spending framework is based on several key principles:
    "
    consistency with a long-term, prudent and transparent regime for managing the public finances as a whole;
    " "
    the judgement of success by policy outcomes rather than resource inputs;
    " "
    strong incentives for departments and their partners in service delivery to plan over several years and plan together where appropriate so as to deliver better public services with greater cost effectiveness; and
    "
    the proper costing and management of capital assets to provide the right incentives for public investment.
    The Government sets policy to meet two firm fiscal rules:
    "
    the Golden Rule states that over the economic cycle, the Government will borrow only to invest and not to fund current spending; and
    "
    the Sustainable Investment Rule states that net public debt as a proportion of GDP will be held over the economic cycle at a stable and prudent level. Other things being equal, net debt will be maintained below 40 per cent of GDP over the economic cycle.
    Achievement of the fiscal rules is assessed by reference to the national accounts, which are produced by the Office for National Statistics, acting as an independent agency. The Government sets its spending envelope to comply with these fiscal rules.
    Departmental Expenditure Limits ( DEL) and Annually Managed Expenditure (AME)
    "
    Departmental Expenditure Limit ( DEL) spending, which is planned and controlled on a three year basis in Spending Reviews; and
    "
    Annually Managed Expenditure ( AME), which is expenditure which cannot reasonably be subject to firm, multi-year limits in the same way as DEL. AME includes social security benefits, local authority self-financed expenditure, debt interest, and payments to EU institutions.
    More information about DEL and AME is set out below.
    In Spending Reviews, firm DEL plans are set for departments for three years. To ensure consistency with the Government's fiscal rules departments are set separate resource (current) and capital budgets. The resource budget contains a separate control total for “near cash” expenditure, that is expenditure such as pay and current grants which impacts directly on the measure of the golden rule.
    To encourage departments to plan over the medium term departments may carry forward unspent DEL provision from one year into the next and, subject to the normal tests for tautness and realism of plans, may be drawn down in future years. This end-year flexibility also removes any incentive for departments to use up their provision as the year end approaches with less regard to value for money. For the full benefits of this flexibility and of three year plans to feed through into improved public service delivery, end-year flexibility and three year budgets should be cascaded from departments to executive agencies and other budget holders.
    Three year budgets and end-year flexibility give those managing public services the stability to plan their operations on a sensible time scale. Further, the system means that departments cannot seek to bid up funds each year (before 1997, three year plans were set and reviewed in annual Public Expenditure Surveys). So the credibility of medium-term plans has been enhanced at both central and departmental level.
    Departments have certainty over the budgetary allocation over the medium term and these multi-year DEL plans are strictly enforced. Departments are expected to prioritise competing pressures and fund these within their overall annual limits, as set in Spending Reviews. So the DEL system provides a strong incentive to control costs and maximise value for money.
    There is a small centrally held DEL Reserve. Support from the Reserve is available only for genuinely unforeseeable contingencies which departments cannot be expected to manage within their DEL.
    AME typically consists of programmes which are large, volatile and demand-led, and which therefore cannot reasonably be subject to firm multi-year limits. The biggest single element is social security spending. Other items include tax credits, Local Authority Self Financed Expenditure, Scottish Executive spending financed by non-domestic rates, and spending financed from the proceeds of the National Lottery.
    AME is reviewed twice a year as part of the Budget and Pre-Budget Report process reflecting the close integration of the tax and benefit system, which was enhanced by the introduction of tax credits.
    AME is not subject to the same three year expenditure limits as DEL, but is still part of the overall envelope for public expenditure. Affordability is taken into account when policy decisions affecting AME are made. The Government has committed itself not to take policy measures which are likely to have the effect of increasing social security or other elements of AME without taking steps to ensure that the effects of those decisions can be accommodated prudently within the Government's fiscal rules.
    Given an overall envelope for public spending, forecasts of AME affect the level of resources available for DEL spending. Cautious estimates and the AME margin are built in to these AME forecasts and reduce the risk of overspending on AME.
    Together, DEL plus AME sum to Total Managed Expenditure (TME). TME is a measure drawn from national accounts. It represents the current and capital spending of the public sector. The public sector is made up of central government, local government and public corporations.
    Resource and Capital Budgets are set in terms of accruals information. Accruals information measures resources as they are consumed rather than when the cash is paid. So for example the Resource Budget includes a charge for depreciation, a measure of the consumption or wearing out of capital assets.
    "
    Non cash charges in budgets do not impact directly on the fiscal framework. That may be because the national accounts use a different way of measuring the same thing, for example in the case of the depreciation of departmental assets. Or it may be that the national accounts measure something different: for example, resource budgets include a cost of capital charge reflecting the opportunity cost of holding capital; the national accounts include debt interest.
    "
    Within the Resource Budget DEL, departments have separate controls on:
    "
    Near cash spending, the sub set of Resource Budgets which impacts directly on the Golden Rule; and
    "
    The amount of their Resource Budget DEL that departments may spend on running themselves (e.g. paying most civil servants’ salaries) is limited by Administration Budgets, which are set in Spending Reviews. Administration Budgets are used to ensure that as much money as practicable is available for front line services and programmes. These budgets also help to drive efficiency improvements in departments’ own activities. Administration Budgets exclude the costs of frontline services delivered directly by departments.
    The Budget preceding a Spending Review sets an overall envelope for public spending that is consistent with the fiscal rules for the period covered by the Spending Review. In the Spending Review, the Budget AME forecast for year one of the Spending Review period is updated, and AME forecasts are made for the later years of the Spending Review period.
    The 1998 Comprehensive Spending Review ( CSR), which was published in July 1998, was a comprehensive review of departmental aims and objectives alongside a zero-based analysis of each spending programme to determine the best way of delivering the Government's objectives. The 1998 CSR allocated substantial additional resources to the Government's key priorities, particularly education and health, for the three year period from 1999-2000 to 2001-02.
    Delivering better public services does not just depend on how much money the Government spends, but also on how well it spends it. Therefore the 1998 CSR introduced Public Service Agreements (PSAs). Each major government department was given its own PSA setting out clear targets for achievements in terms of public service improvements.
    The 1998 CSR also introduced the DEL/ AME framework for the control of public spending, and made other framework changes. Building on the investment and reforms delivered by the 1998 CSR, successive spending reviews in 2000, 2002 and 2004 have:
    "
    provided significant increase in resources for the Government’s priorities, in particular health and education, and cross-cutting themes such as raising productivity; extending opportunity; and building strong and secure communities;
    " "
    enabled the Government significantly to increase investment in public assets and address the legacy of under investment from past decades. Departmental Investment Strategies were introduced in SR2000. As a result there has been a steady increase in public sector net investment from less than ¾ of a per cent of GDP in 1997-98 to 2¼ per cent of GDP in 2005-06, providing better infrastructure across public services;
    " "
    introduced further refinements to the performance management framework. PSA targets have been reduced in number over successive spending reviews from around 300 to 110 to give greater focus to the Government’s highest priorities. The targets have become increasingly outcome-focused to deliver further improvements in key areas of public service delivery across Government. They have also been refined in line with the conclusions of the Devolving Decision Making Review to provide a framework which encourages greater devolution and local flexibility. Technical Notes were introduced in SR2000 explaining how performance against each PSA target will be measured; and
    "
    not only allocated near cash spending to departments, but also – since SR2002 - set Resource DEL plans for non cash spending.
    To identify what further investments and reforms are needed to equip the UK for the global challenges of the decade ahead, on 19 July 2005 the Chief Secretary to the Treasury announced that the Government intends to launch a second Comprehensive Spending Review (CSR) reporting in 2007.
    A decade on from the first CSR, the 2007 CSR will represent a long-term and fundamental review of government expenditure. It will cover departmental allocations for 2008-09, 2009-10 and 2010 11. Allocations for 2007-08 will be held to the agreed figures already announced by the 2004 Spending Review. To provide a rigorous analytical framework for these departmental allocations, the Government will be taking forward a programme of preparatory work over 2006 involving:
    "
    an assessment of what the sustained increases in spending and reforms to public service delivery have achieved since the first CSR. The assessment will inform the setting of new objectives for the decade ahead;
    " "
    an examination of the key long-term trends and challenges that will shape the next decade – including demographic and socio-economic change, globalisation, climate and environmental change, global insecurity and technological change – together with an assessment of how public services will need to respond;
    " "
    to release the resources needed to address these challenges, and to continue to secure maximum value for money from public spending over the CSR period, a set of zero-based reviews of departments’ baseline expenditure to assess its effectiveness in delivering the Government’s long-term objectives; together with
    "
    further development of the efficiency programme, building on the cross cutting areas identified in the Gershon Review, to embed and extend ongoing efficiency savings into departmental expenditure planning.
    The 2007 CSR also offers the opportunity to continue to refine the PSA framework so that it drives effective delivery and the attainment of ambitious national standards.
    Public Service Agreements (PSAs) were introduced in the 1998 CSR. They set out agreed targets detailing the outputs and outcomes departments are expected to deliver with the resources allocated to them. The new spending regime places a strong emphasis on outcome targets, for example in providing for better health and higher educational standards or service standards. The introduction in SR2004 of PSA ‘standards’ will ensure that high standards in priority areas are maintained.
    The Government monitors progress against PSA targets, and departments report in detail twice a year in their annual Departmental Reports (published in spring) and in their autumn performance reports. These reports provide Parliament and the public with regular updates on departments’ performance against their targets.
    Technical Notes explain how performance against each PSA target will be measured.
    To make the most of both new investment and existing assets, there needs to be a coherent long term strategy against which investment decisions are taken. Departmental Investment Strategies (DIS) set out each department's plans to deliver the scale and quality of capital stock needed to underpin its objectives. The DIS includes information about the department's existing capital stock and future plans for that stock, as well as plans for new investment. It also sets out the systems that the department has in place to ensure that it delivers its capital programmes effectively.
    This document was updated on 19 December 2005.
    Near-cash resource expenditure that has a related cash implication, even though the timing of the cash payment may be slightly different. For example, expenditure on gas or electricity supply is incurred as the fuel is used, though the cash payment might be made in arrears on aquarterly basis. Other examples of near-cash expenditure are: pay, rental.Net cash requirement the upper limit agreed by Parliament on the cash which a department may draw from theConsolidated Fund to finance the expenditure within the ambit of its Request forResources. It is equal to the agreed amount of net resources and net capital less non-cashitems and working capital.Non-cash cost costs where there is no cash transaction but which are included in a body’s accounts (or taken into account in charging for a service) to establish the true cost of all the resourcesused.Non-departmental a body which has a role in the processes of government, but is not a government public body, NDPBdepartment or part of one. NDPBs accordingly operate at arm’s length from governmentMinisters.Notional cost of a cost which is taken into account in setting fees and charges to improve comparability with insuranceprivate sector service providers.The charge takes account of the fact that public bodies donot generally pay an insurance premium to a commercial insurer.the independent body responsible for collecting and publishing official statistics about theUK’s society and economy. (At the time of going to print legislation was progressing tochange this body to the Statistics Board).Office of Government an office of the Treasury, with a status similar to that of an agency, which aims to maximise Commerce, OGCthe government’s purchasing power for routine items and combine professional expertiseto bear on capital projects.Office of the the government department responsible for discharging the Paymaster General’s statutoryPaymaster General,responsibilities to hold accounts and make payments for government departments and OPGother public bodies.Orange bookthe informal title for Management of Risks: Principles and Concepts, which is published by theTreasury for the guidance of public sector bodies.Office for NationalStatistics, ONS60Managing Public Money
    ————————————————————————————————————————
    "
    GLOSSARYOverdraftan account with a negative balance.Parliament’s formal agreement to authorise an activity or expenditure.Prerogative powerspowers exercisable under the Royal Prerogative, ie powers which are unique to the Crown,as contrasted with common-law powers which may be available to the Crown on the samebasis as to natural persons.Primary legislationActs which have been passed by the Westminster Parliament and, where they haveappropriate powers, the Scottish Parliament and the Northern Ireland Assembly. Begin asBills until they have received Royal Assent.arrangements under which a public sector organisation contracts with a private sectorentity to construct a facility and provide associated services of a specified quality over asustained period. See annex 7.5.Proprietythe principle that patterns of resource consumption should respect Parliament’s intentions,conventions and control procedures, including any laid down by the PAC. See box 2.4.Public Accountssee Committee of Public Accounts.CommitteePublic corporationa trading body controlled by central government, local authority or other publiccorporation that has substantial day to day operating independence. See section 7.8.Public Dividend finance provided by government to public sector bodies as an equity stake; an alternative to Capital, PDCloan finance.Public Service sets out what the public can expect the government to deliver with its resources. EveryAgreement, PSAlarge government department has PSA(s) which specify deliverables as targets or aimsrelated to objectives.a structured arrangement between a public sector and a private sector organisation tosecure an outcome delivering good value for money for the public sector. It is classified tothe public or private sector according to which has more control.Rate of returnthe financial remuneration delivered by a particular project or enterprise, expressed as apercentage of the net assets employed.Regularitythe principle that resource consumption should accord with the relevant legislation, therelevant delegated authority and this document. See box 2.4.Request for the functional level into which departmental Estimates may be split. RfRs contain a number Resources, RfRof functions being carried out by the department in pursuit of one or more of thatdepartment’s objectives.Resource accountan accruals account produced in line with the Financial Reporting Manual (FReM).Resource accountingthe system under which budgets, Estimates and accounts are constructed in a similar wayto commercial audited accounts, so that both plans and records of expenditure allow in fullfor the goods and services which are to be, or have been, consumed – ie not just the cashexpended.Resource budgetthe means by which the government plans and controls the expenditure of resources tomeet its objectives.Restitutiona legal concept which allows money and property to be returned to its rightful owner. Ittypically operates where another person can be said to have been unjustly enriched byreceiving such monies.Return on capital the ratio of profit to capital employed of an accounting entity during an identified period.employed, ROCEVarious measures of profit and of capital employed may be used in calculating the ratio.Public Privatepartnership, PPPPrivate Finance Initiative, PFIParliamentaryauthority61Managing Public Money
    "
    ————————————————————————————————————————
    GLOSSARYRoyal charterthe document setting out the powers and constitution of a corporation established underprerogative power of the monarch acting on Privy Council advice.Second readingthe second formal time that a House of Parliament may debate a bill, although in practicethe first substantive debate on its content. If successful, it is deemed to denoteParliamentary approval of the principle of the proposed legislation.Secondary legislationlaws, including orders and regulations, which are made using powers in primary legislation.Normally used to set out technical and administrative provision in greater detail thanprimary legislation, they are subject to a less intense level of scrutiny in Parliament.European legislation is,however,often implemented in secondary legislation using powers inthe European Communities Act 1972.Service-level agreement between parties, setting out in detail the level of service to be performed.agreementWhere agreements are between central government bodies, they are not legally a contractbut have a similar function.Shareholder Executive a body created to improve the government’s performance as a shareholder in businesses.Spending reviewsets out the key improvements in public services that the public can expect over a givenperiod. It includes a thorough review of departmental aims and objectives to find the bestway of delivering the government’s objectives, and sets out the spending plans for the givenperiod.State aidstate support for a domestic body or company which could distort EU competition and sois not usually allowed. See annex 4.9.Statement of Excessa formal statement detailing departments’ overspends prepared by the Comptroller andAuditor General as a result of undertaking annual audits.Statement on Internal an annual statement that Accounting Officers are required to make as part of the accounts Control, SICon a range of risk and control issues.Subheadindividual elements of departmental expenditure identifiable in Estimates as single cells, forexample cell A1 being administration costs within a particular line of departmental spending.Supplyresources voted by Parliament in response to Estimates, for expenditure by governmentdepartments.Supply Estimatesa statement of the resources the government needs in the coming financial year, and forwhat purpose(s), by which Parliamentary authority is sought for the planned level ofexpenditure and income.Target rate of returnthe rate of return required of a project or enterprise over a given period, usually at least a year.Third sectorprivate sector bodies which do not act commercially,including charities,social and voluntaryorganisations and other not-for-profit collectives. See annex 7.7.Total Managed a Treasury budgeting term which covers all current and capital spending carried out by the Expenditure,TMEpublic sector (ie not just by central departments).Trading fundan organisation (either within a government department or forming one) which is largely orwholly financed from commercial revenue generated by its activities. Its Estimate shows itsnet impact, allowing its income from receipts to be devoted entirely to its business.Treasury Minutea formal administrative document drawn up by the Treasury, which may serve a wide varietyof purposes including seeking Parliamentary approval for the use of receipts asappropriations in aid, a remission of some or all of the principal of voted loans, andresponding on behalf of the government to reports by the Public Accounts Committee(PAC).62Managing Public Money
    ————————————————————————————————————————
    GLOSSARY63Managing Public MoneyValue for moneythe process under which organisation’s procurement, projects and processes aresystematically evaluated and assessed to provide confidence about suitability, effectiveness,prudence,quality,value and avoidance of error and other waste,judged for the public sectoras a whole.Virementthe process through which funds are moved between subheads such that additionalexpenditure on one is met by savings on one or more others.Votethe process by which Parliament approves funds in response to supply Estimates.Voted expenditureprovision for expenditure that has been authorised by Parliament. Parliament ‘votes’authority for public expenditure through the Supply Estimates process. Most expenditureby central government departments is authorised in this way.Wider market activity activities undertaken by central government organisations outside their statutory duties,using spare capacity and aimed at generating a commercial profit. See annex 7.6.Windfallmonies received by a department which were not anticipated in the spending review.
    ————————————————————————————————————————

    Англо-русский экономический словарь > near cash

  • 16 subject

    1.
    adjective
    ((of countries etc) not independent, but dominated by another power: subject nations.) dominado, subyugado

    2. noun
    1) (a person who is under the rule of a monarch or a member of a country that has a monarchy etc: We are loyal subjects of the Queen; He is a British subject.) súbdito
    2) (someone or something that is talked about, written about etc: We discussed the price of food and similar subjects; What was the subject of the debate?; The teacher tried to think of a good subject for their essay; I've said all I can on that subject.) tema, asunto
    3) (a branch of study or learning in school, university etc: He is taking exams in seven subjects; Mathematics is his best subject.) asignatura
    4) (a thing, person or circumstance suitable for, or requiring, a particular kind of treatment, reaction etc: I don't think her behaviour is a subject for laughter.) motivo
    5) (in English, the word(s) representing the person or thing that usually does the action shown by the verb, and with which the verb agrees: The cat sat on the mat; He hit her because she broke his toy; He was hit by the ball.) sujeto

    3. səb'‹ekt verb
    1) (to bring (a person, country etc) under control: They have subjected all the neighbouring states (to their rule).) dominar, subyugar
    2) (to cause to suffer, or submit (to something): He was subjected to cruel treatment; These tyres are subjected to various tests before leaving the factory.) someter
    •
    - subjective
    - subjectively
    - subject matter
    - change the subject
    - subject to
    1. asignatura
    2. tema
    3. súbdito
    4. sujeto
    in English, the subject goes before the verb en inglés, el sujeto va delante del verbo
    tr[ (n-adj) 'sʌbʤekt; (vb) səb'ʤekt]
    1 (theme, topic) tema nombre masculino
    ■ what's your opinion on the subject? ¿qué opinas del tema?
    2 SMALLEDUCATION/SMALL asignatura
    3 (citizen) súbdito, ciudadano,-a
    4 SMALLLINGUISTICS/SMALL sujeto
    5 (cause) objeto (of/for, de)
    1 (bring under control) someter, sojuzgar (to, a)
    1 (subordinate, governed) sometido,-a
    1 subject to (bound by) sujeto,-a a
    1 subject to (prone to - floods, subsidence) expuesto,-a a; (- change, delay) susceptible de, sujeto,-a a; (- illness) propenso,-a a
    1 (conditional on) previo,-a, supeditado,-a a
    \
    SMALLIDIOMATIC EXPRESSION/SMALL
    to change the subject cambiar de tema
    subject [səb'ʤɛkt] vt
    1) control, dominate: controlar, dominar
    2) : someter
    they subjected him to pressure: lo sometieron a presiones
    subject ['sʌbʤɪkt] adj
    1) : subyugado, sometido
    a subject nation: una nación subyugada
    2) prone: sujeto, propenso
    subject to colds: sujeto a resfriarse
    3)
    subject to : sujeto a
    subject to congressional approval: sujeto a la aprobación del congreso
    subject ['sʌbʤɪkt] n
    1) : súbdito m, -ta f (de un gobierno)
    2) topic: tema m
    3) : sujeto m (en gramática)
    adj.
    • asunto, -a adj.
    • materia adj.
    • subyugado, -a adj.
    • sujeto, -a adj.
    • súbdito, -a adj.
    • tema adj.
    n.
    • asunto s.m.
    • capítulo s.m.
    • lectura s.f.
    • materia s.f.
    • sujeto s.m.
    • súbdito s.m.
    • tema s.m.
    v.
    • avasallar v.
    • dominar v.
    • someter v.
    • sujetar v.
    • supeditar v.

    I 'sʌbdʒɪkt
    1) ( topic) tema m

    to get off the subject — salirse* or desviarse* del tema, irse* por las ramas

    while we're on the subject, who...? — a propósito del tema or ya que estamos hablando de esto ¿quién...?

    to be the subject of controversy — ser* objeto de polémica

    2) ( discipline) asignatura f, materia f (esp AmL), ramo m (Chi)
    3) ( Pol) súbdito, -ta m,f
    4) ( Ling) sujeto m

    II 'sʌbdʒɪkt
    1) ( owing obedience) <people/nation/province> sometido
    2)
    a) (liable, prone)

    to be subject TO something — \<\<to change/delay\>\> estar* sujeto a algo, ser* susceptible de algo; \<\<to flooding/subsidence/temptation\>\> estar* expuesto a algo; \<\<to ill health/depression\>\> ser* propenso a algo

    to be subject TO something — estar* sujeto a algo


    III səb'dʒekt

    to subject something/somebody TO something — someter algo/a alguien a algo

    2) ( make submissive) \<\<nation/people\>\> someter, sojuzgar*
    1. ['sʌbdʒɪkt]
    N
    1) (=topic, theme) tema m ; (=plot) argumento m, asunto m

    • to change the subject — cambiar de tema

    changing the subject... — hablando de otra cosa..., cambiando de tema...

    • it's a delicate subject — es un asunto delicado

    • on the subject of... — a propósito de...

    (while we're) on the subject of money... — ya que de dinero se trata...

    • this raises the whole subject of money — esto plantea el problema general del dinero

    2) (Scol, Univ) asignatura f
    3) (Gram) sujeto m
    4) (Med) caso m
    5) (Sci)
    6) (esp Brit) (Pol) súbdito(-a) m / f

    British subject — súbdito(-a) m / f británico(-a)

    liberty of the subject — libertad f del ciudadano

    2. ['sʌbdʒɪkt]
    ADJ
    1) [people, nation] dominado, subyugado
    2)

    subject to — (=liable to) [+ law, tax, delays] sujeto a; [+ disease] propenso a; [+ flooding] expuesto a; (=conditional on) [+ approval etc] sujeto a

    3.
    [sǝb'dʒekt]
    VT
    4.
    ['sʌbdʒɪkt]
    CPD

    subject heading N — título m de materia

    subject index N — (in book) índice m de materias; (in library) catálogo m de materias

    subject matter N — (=topic) tema m, asunto m ; [of letter] contenido m

    subject pronoun N — pronombre m (de) sujeto

    * * *

    I ['sʌbdʒɪkt]
    1) ( topic) tema m

    to get off the subject — salirse* or desviarse* del tema, irse* por las ramas

    while we're on the subject, who...? — a propósito del tema or ya que estamos hablando de esto ¿quién...?

    to be the subject of controversy — ser* objeto de polémica

    2) ( discipline) asignatura f, materia f (esp AmL), ramo m (Chi)
    3) ( Pol) súbdito, -ta m,f
    4) ( Ling) sujeto m

    II ['sʌbdʒɪkt]
    1) ( owing obedience) <people/nation/province> sometido
    2)
    a) (liable, prone)

    to be subject TO something — \<\<to change/delay\>\> estar* sujeto a algo, ser* susceptible de algo; \<\<to flooding/subsidence/temptation\>\> estar* expuesto a algo; \<\<to ill health/depression\>\> ser* propenso a algo

    to be subject TO something — estar* sujeto a algo


    III [səb'dʒekt]

    to subject something/somebody TO something — someter algo/a alguien a algo

    2) ( make submissive) \<\<nation/people\>\> someter, sojuzgar*

    English-spanish dictionary > subject

  • 17 merry

    ['merɪ]
    1) (happy) allegro, gaio
    2) colloq. (tipsy) allegro, brillo, alticcio
    3) ant. (anche merrie)

    merry England — = l'Inghilterra felice del periodo elisabettiano

    ••

    the more the merrier! — prov. più si è, meglio è

    to make merry — fare festa o baldoria

    to give sb. merry hell — colloq. mettere qcn. nei casini

    * * *
    ['meri]
    1) (cheerful; noisily or laughingly lively etc: merry children; a merry party.) felice, allegro
    2) (slightly drunk: He's been getting merry on whisky.) allegro
    •
    - merriness
    - merriment
    - merry-go-round
    - merrymaking
    - merrymaker
    * * *
    merry /ˈmɛrɪ/
    a.
    1 allegro; gaio; giocondo; lieto; festoso: a merry laugh, un'allegra risata
    2 (arc.) bello; dolce; ameno
    3 (fam.) brillo; alticcio
    ● merry-andrew, buffone; pagliaccio □ (stor.) Merry England, l'Inghilterra Felice ( della regina Elisabetta I) □ merry-go-round, giostra; carosello; (fig.) attività frenetica □ merry-making, festa; baldoria; divertimento □ (stor.) the Merry Monarch, il Re Libertino ( Carlo II: 1649-85) □ Merry Christmas!, buon Natale!; felice Natale! □ to make merry, far festa; far baldoria.
    * * *
    ['merɪ]
    1) (happy) allegro, gaio
    2) colloq. (tipsy) allegro, brillo, alticcio
    3) ant. (anche merrie)

    merry England — = l'Inghilterra felice del periodo elisabettiano

    ••

    the more the merrier! — prov. più si è, meglio è

    to make merry — fare festa o baldoria

    to give sb. merry hell — colloq. mettere qcn. nei casini

    English-Italian dictionary > merry

  • 18 merry

    adjective

    a merry time was had by all — alle haben sich prächtig amüsiert

    the more the merrier — je mehr, desto besser

    merry Christmas! — frohe od. fröhliche Weihnachten!

    2) (coll.): (tipsy) beschwipst (ugs.)
    * * *
    ['meri]
    1) (cheerful; noisily or laughingly lively etc: merry children; a merry party.) lustig
    2) (slightly drunk: He's been getting merry on whisky.) angeheitert
    •
    - academic.ru/89103/merrily">merrily
    - merriness
    - merriment
    - merry-go-round
    - merrymaking
    - merrymaker
    * * *
    mer·ry
    [ˈmeri]
    1. (happy) fröhlich
    M\merry Christmas Frohe [o Fröhliche] Weihnachten
    2. BRIT ( fam: slightly drunk) angesäuselt fam
    3.
    ▶ to go one's \merry way seiner Wege gehen
    ▶ to lead sb a \merry chase AM jdn an der Nase herumführen
    ▶ to make \merry feiern
    * * *
    ['merɪ]
    adj (+er)
    1) (= cheerful) fröhlich, vergnügt, lustig; song, tune fröhlich

    Merry Christmas! — fröhliche or frohe Weihnachten!

    2) (fig)

    to lead sb a merry dance — jdn ganz schön an der Nase herumführen

    to play merry hell with sth (inf) — etw total durcheinanderbringen

    3) (Brit inf = tipsy) beschwipst, angeheitert (inf)

    to get merry — sich (dat) einen anpicheln (inf)

    * * *
    merry [ˈmerı] adj (adv merrily)
    1. lustig, heiter, fröhlich, fidel:
    merry Christmas! frohe oder fröhliche Weihnachten!;
    Merry England das gute alte England (besonders zur Zeit Elisabeths I.);
    the Merry Monarch volkstümliche Bezeichnung für Karl II. (1660-85);
    make merry lustig sein, (fröhlich) feiern
    2. spaßig, lustig
    3. umg beschwipst, angesäuselt, angeheitert:
    get merry sich einen andudeln
    * * *
    adjective

    the more the merrier — je mehr, desto besser

    merry Christmas! — frohe od. fröhliche Weihnachten!

    2) (coll.): (tipsy) beschwipst (ugs.)
    * * *
    adj.
    fröhlich adj.
    lustig adj.

    English-german dictionary > merry

  • 19 supreme

    adjective
    höchst...
    * * *
    [su'pri:m]
    1) (the highest, greatest, or most powerful: the supreme ruler.) oberst
    2) (the greatest possible: an act of supreme courage.) höchst
    •
    - academic.ru/72343/supremely">supremely
    - supremacy
    - the Supreme Court
    * * *
    su·preme
    [su:ˈpri:m, AM səˈ-]
    I. adj inv
    1. (superior) höchste(r, s), oberste(r, s)
    \supreme authority höchste [Regierungs]gewalt
    \supreme commander Oberbefehlshaber(in) m(f)
    \supreme ruler oberster Herrscher/oberste Herrscherin
    to reign \supreme absolut herrschen; ( fig) [unangefochten] an erster Stelle stehen
    3. (extreme) äußerste(r, s), größte(r, s)
    the \supreme irony was that... die größte Ironie bestand darin, dass...; (causing great pleasure) überragend, unübertroffen, unvergleichlich
    to show \supreme courage größten Mut beweisen
    to require a \supreme effort of will höchste Willenskraft erfordern
    \supreme moment einzigartiger Moment, Höhepunkt m
    4. (fatal)
    to make the \supreme sacrifice ( liter) [sein Leben] opfern
    II. n no pl FOOD
    turkey \supreme ≈ Putengeschnetzeltes nt, ≈ Trutengeschnetzeltes nt SCHWEIZ (in Sahnesauce)
    * * *
    [sʊ'priːm]
    1. adj
    1) (= highest in authority) höchste(r, s); court, Soviet oberste(r, s)
    2) (= very great) courage, indifference etc äußerste(r, s), größte(r, s)

    with supreme indifference — äußerst or völlig unbeteiligt

    3)

    (= ultimate) to make the supreme sacrifice —

    2. adv

    to rule or reign supreme (monarch) — absolut herrschen; (champion, justice) unangefochten herrschen; (silence) überall herrschen

    * * *
    supreme [sʊˈpriːm]
    A adj
    1. höchst(er, e, es), oberst(er, e, es), Ober…:
    supreme authority höchste (Regierungs)Gewalt;
    supreme command MIL Oberbefehl m, -kommando n;
    supreme commander MIL Oberbefehlshaber m;
    Supreme Court US Oberstes Bundesgericht;
    Supreme Soviet HIST Oberster Sowjet;
    reign supreme herrschen (a. fig); → judicature 1
    2. höchst(er, e, es), größt(er, e, es), äußerst(er, e, es), überragend (Mut etc):
    the supreme good PHIL das höchste Gut;
    the supreme punishment die Todesstrafe;
    he stands supreme among poets er nimmt unter den Dichtern den höchsten Rang ein
    3. letzt(er, e, es):
    supreme moment Augenblick m des Todes;
    make the supreme sacrifice sein Leben hingeben oder opfern
    4. entscheidend, kritisch:
    B s
    1. the supreme der oder die oder das Höchste
    2. the Supreme der Allerhöchste, Gott m
    3. fig Gipfel m:
    * * *
    adjective
    höchst...
    * * *
    adj.
    höchst adj.

    English-german dictionary > supreme

  • 20 merry

    ['meri]
    1) (cheerful; noisily or laughingly lively etc: merry children; a merry party.) vesel
    2) (slightly drunk: He's been getting merry on whisky.) v rožicah
    •
    - merriness
    - merriment
    - merry-go-round
    - merrymaking
    - merrymaker
    * * *
    I [méri]
    noun
    botany črna divja češnja
    II [méri]
    adjective ( merrily adverb)
    vesel, živahen; natrkan; smešen, zabaven; archaic prijeten
    as merry as a cricket ( —ali lark) —ali as merry as the day is long — zelo vesel, židane volje
    to make merry — zabavati se, veseliti se
    to make merry over — smejati se komu, norčevati se iz koga
    a merry Christmas (to you)! — vesel božič!
    Merry England — vesela, stara Anglija (zlasti za časa Elizabete I.)
    the Merry Monarch — vzdevek Charlesa II.

    English-Slovenian dictionary > merry

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